Afanasy Nikitin\'s Travel to India during 1466-1472 AD-Muslim period ...

Afanasy Nikitin’s Travel to India during 1466-1472 AD- Muslim period of Bahmani Sultan: By: Bipin Shah

Introduction:

Afanasy Nikitin’s portrait and his life size Statues in Tver, Russia

Afanasy Nikitin was a Russian merchant from Tver and he traveled to India in 1466 AD for commercial purpose, while staying there for almost four years. He began his journey in March of 1466 AD. He set out his journey with Vassily Papin and the gyrfalcons of the Grand Duke (his assistant and guide). Prior to his death, Nikitin had written in his own hand his travel account that another merchant brought his notebooks to Moscow, to Vassily Mamyrev, 1

secretary to the Grand Duke. This account was translated in English and this paper records his observation of 15th century AD, India. This author has identified the proper Indian names by best of his abilities of the places in India he visited and where necessary applied the correction to mistaken translation that worked through many hands. Nikitin describes his journey as “Journey beyond three seas”, namely Black sea, Caspian Sea and Indian Ocean that began from Persian Guelph. He passed through Kalmyk region of Russia and river Volga to black sea to Caspian Sea and reaches Persia and went south to Hormuz (Bandar Abbas) to head to India. He offers very valuable insights of the life of people in India during his stay. His stated motive was trade but upon arrival it went by wayside as he claims he could not find anything in value to trade which Russian people would buy. He was forcibly converted to Islam against his will. All these records and notes still leave a vacuum in understanding why he undertook such a risky travel. Prior to reaching Tver, Russia, he died in Kiev, Ukraine.

Tver-Russia where his travel originated –North of Moscow

In light of Indo-soviet friend ship during cold war under “socialist and pseudo secularist” Prime Minister Nehru, the Indian organization "Adventures & Explorers," with the support of the Embassy of India in Moscow and the Tver Regional Administration sponsored the "Nikitin Expedition", in which 14 travelers set out from Tver to retrace Nikitin's journey through Russia, the Middle East, and Central Asia to India. The expedition lasted from 12 November 2006 to 16 January 2007. The Indian national newspaper, The Hindu, filed several reports of the expedition's progress. The local authorities of Tver erected a bronze monument to Afanasy Nikitin on the bank of the Volga River. In 1997 AD, commemorative coin of Nikitin was issued by Bank of Russia. The following account gives the details of his journey beyond three seas. 2

Buddhist Kingdom of Russian Federation: The Kalmyks or Halimags are the Mongolian tribe of Russia whose ancestors migrated from Dzungaria during 1607 AD. They created the Kalmyk Khanate in 1630–1724 AD in Russia's North Caucasus Region and now they form a majority in the autonomous republic of Kalmykia on the western shore of the Caspian Sea. The most interesting aspect about them is that they are all Buddhist. Kalmyk’s Buddhist migrants first opened their Buddhist temple in Central Europe. The temple was located in Belgrade, Serbia. Al-Biruni has observed that Buddhism is the one of the oldest religion of the world and spread so far to east and west of Asia in antiquity. Kalmyks came from Oirats. Oirats are the westernmost group of the Mongols whose ancestral home is assumed to be in the Altai region of western Mongolia. Although the Oirats originated in the eastern parts of Central Asia, the most prominent group today is located in Kalmykia, a federal republic of Russia.

Kalmyks Republic of Russian Federation- a Buddhist nation

His Departure from Russia Prior to his departure, Afanasy Nikitin and his party sought the blessing from orthodox Christian priest of the golden-domed Cathedral of our Savior in Tver and then paid a courtesy call to Mikhail Borisovich, Grand Duke of Tver, and their Graces, Gennady of Tver and Boris Zakharyich. 3

The party travelled down to catch the Volga ferry at Kalyazin where the Monastery of the Holy Trinity and the Martyrs Boris and Gleb are located. Kalyazin is a town and the administrative center of Kalyazinsky District in Tver Oblast, Russia, located on the right bank of the Volga River, approximately 109 miles northeast of Tver. The church now is engulphed by Volga river water. The shifting of river course drowned the church where Nikitin received his blessing from Bishops. The pictures below shows what church look like when he visited (on left) and water level rise and present submerged structure at Kalyazin.

The traveling trios obtained the blessings from the Father Superior Makarii and the holy brothers there. From Kalyazin, the party sailed to Uglich and from Uglich and he was allowed to depart unhindered with a good night rest. The party then arrived at Kostroma, and, bearing a passport from the Grand Duke, calling on Prince Alexander for safe conduct, who allowed them to leave without hindrance. The party proceeds to Ples where they presented their documents to Mikhail Kiselev, Governor of Nizhny Novgorod and Ivan Saraev, the Keeper of the Tolls, and they too allowed them to leave without hindrance. Vassily Papin decided to move right away but Nikitin stayed for two weeks in Novgorod for Hassan-Beg, the Tatar ambassador of Shirvan to accompany him. He was travelling with gyrfalcons from the Grand Duke Ivan, and he had ninety gyrfalcons with him. The gyrfalcon, also spelled gerfalcon, is a bird of prey, the largest of the falcon species.

Nikitin and Khorasani Tatars:

4

Tatar with falcons

Map of Tatar Khanate

The Volga Tatars are a Crimean Turkic ethnic group, native to the Volga-Ural region, Russia. The 14th century AD saw the spread of Sunni Islam among the Tatars (Turks). Tatars were half Mongols and half Caucasian and they all carry (1 out of 7) Chengiz khan’s genes. Moguls of India and Timuroid dynasty of Khorasan descended from Khorasani group of Tatars. They were known for their knowledge of geography and acted as guides for travelers. They used Falcons for scouting missions during the journey. They were also good horseman and fighters. Nikitin sailed with Hassan-Beg down the Volga, passing Kazan with no trouble, not having encountered with anyone, and passed the Horde, Uslan, Sarai and Berekazan, and entered the river Buzan. The Buzan River is a river in the Astrakhan, Oblast of Russia. It is left distributaries which splits from the Volga River about 30 miles upstream from Astrakhan. See the map below.

Buzan River and split from Volga, Russia

Nikitin Continues: “Here we met three pagan Tatars, who falsely informed us that the Sultan Kassim lay in wait for merchants with three thousand soldiers on the Buzan. Hassan-Beg, the ambassador of the Shah of Shirvan, presented each of them with a caftan and a fine cloth that they might lead us safely by Astrakhan. They, pagan Tatars, took our caftans, but 5

betrayed us to the Khan. And my companions and I left our boat and boarded the ambassador’s. We sailed past Astrakhan in the full moon, and the Khan saw us, and the Tatars shouted, Do not run!, but we ignored them and fled in full sail. For our sins, the King sent all his men after us. They caught up with us at Bogun and shot arrows at us, killing one of our men, and we, in turn, killed two Tatars. At a weir, our small vessel was trapped, and the Tatars seized it and plundered it; all my belongings were on that boat. We reached the sea on the big vessel, but foundered on the mouths of the Volga. Then the Tatars captured us and ordered us to tow the boat back up the river to the weir. They confiscated the big ship and took four Russians captive, and they allowed us to leave, dispossessed, beyond the sea, and did not permit us back up the river, for fear we might send word. In tears, we sailed on two boats to Derbent. These Turks are treacherous people.” Derbent (also called Derbend) is a city in the Republic of Dagestan, Russia. It is located on the Caspian Sea, north of the Azerbaijani border. It is in the southernmost city of Russia, and it is the second-most important city of Dagestan. The Dagestani Turks have adopted Islam.

Dagestan, Caspian sea, Iran and Tatars of Dagestan

“In one boat were Hassan-Beg, the ambassador, with Teziks (Teziks), and of us, Russians, ten men; in the other, six Muscovites, six men from Tver, as well as cows and our food. A storm broke out on the sea, and the smaller ship was broken upon the coast, where stood the little town of Tarki. Several men went ashore, and then arrived some Kaitaks (Khazar) and took them all prisoner.” 6

“When we arrived at Derbent, Vassily by good fortune had come as well, while we had been robbed. And I humbly begged Vassily Papin and Hassan-Beg, the Shirvan shah’s ambassador with whom we had travelled, that they might plead for the men captured by the Kaitaks at Tarki. And Hassan-Beg went to the city to entreat Bulat-Beg. And Bulat-Beg sent a messenger to the Shirvan shah: Sire! A Russian vessel has been wrecked off Tarki, and the Kaitaks have imprisoned its crew and robbed it of its goods. And the Shirvan shah at once sent a missive to his brother-in-law Khalil-Beg, Prince of Kaitaks: My ship was wrecked off Tarki and your people came and took its crew captive, and stole its goods; would you, for my sake, send me the men and gather their goods because those men were sent to me. And whatever you want of me, send for it, and I will not deny you anything, my brother. But send those men to me, for my sake, without hindrance. And Khalil-Beg immediately released all the men to Derbent, from where they were dispatched to the Shirvan shah’s camp.”

Journey from Azerbaijan to Iran via Caspian Sea: Shirvan shah (Persian) or Şirvanşah (Azerbaijani) was the epithet of the rulers of Shirvan; Shirvan is located in modern Azerbaijan Republic (from the mid-9th century to the early 16th century AD). The title remained in a single family; they were Yazidids, an originally Arab but adopted Persian religion of Mithraism and Zoroasterism and became fiduciary to Persian dynasty. “We also went to the Shirvan shah’s camp and bowed to him, and begged him to grant us resources to return to Russia. But he gave us nothing as we were many. And we dispersed, weeping; those with property in Russia left for Russia, and those in debt there, went wherever they could. A few went to Shemakha and others went in search of work to Baku. And I went to Derbent, and from Derbent to Baku, where the inextinguishable flames burn; and from Baku, I went to sea – to Chapakpur (?). (This is a place in Caspian Sea in Iran and name may have changed and it can be Chaloo) I sojourned in Chapakpur six months, and six months in Sari, in the realm of Mazandaran. From there, I went to Amol where I stayed several months. Thence he went to Damavand and from Damavand to Rayy. Here the Shah Hussein had been murdered, the sons of Ali, grandsons of Mohammed, and the curse of Mohammed had befallen the murderers – seventy towns were destroyed.” Here he realizes the futility and high cost of his expedition but it was too late for him. Mazandaran Province of Iran is located along the southern coast of the Caspian Sea and in the adjacent Central Alborz mountain range, in central-northern Iran. Mazandaran Province is 7

heavily populated provinces of Iran and has diverse natural resources, notably large reservoirs of oil and natural gas. The province's four largest counties are Sari, Amol, Nur, and Tonekabon that were established in 1937 AD by Shah of Persia.

Places of interest and Stops- chapakpur is unknown due to name change and it can be either Lankaran or Chaloo

District Maps of Iran around Caspian Sea where Nikitin made stops along the ways

8

Nikitin continues his account: “I sojourned in Chapakpur for six months, and six months in Sari, in the realm of Mazandaran. From there, I went to Amol where I stayed several months. Thence I went to Damavand and from Damavand to Rayy. Here the Shah Hussein had been murdered, the sons of Ali, grandsons of Mohammed, and the curse of Mohammed had befallen the murderers – seventy towns were destroyed.” Damavand of today was called Demavend and was also called as Qaşabeh-e Damavand. This city is located in and the capital of Damavand County, Tehran Province, Iran. Damavand is an ancient and historic city. The name Damavand appears in Sassanid texts and Parthian remains have been found there. The city fell to Arab Muslim invaders in 651 AD. It is close to Iran's tallest peak of Mount Damavand, which Ferdowsi Shahnamah mentions abundantly in the text. The city has relatively cool weather year round. The last remark of Nikitin just describes the Sunni-Shia difference and how ruthlessly Shia Ali, sun-in-law of Prophet Mohammed was assassinated by Power hungry and extremist Caliphate who were bent on imposing the extremist ideology on the world. There are memorials. Rayy means the Ray near Tehran where the first Iranian Aryan civilization flourished.

“From Rayy, I went to Kashan and dwelt there some months, and from Kashan to Nain, and from Nain to Yazd, and sojourned here some months. From Yazd, I went to Siraj, and from Siraj to Tarom, where livestock are fed dates; a batman of dates (Persian measurement-see notes) is sold for four altyns. From Tarom, I went to Lara and from Lara to Bender – by the straits of Hormuz. And here is the Indian Ocean (in Persian, Darya-e-Hindustan); from the town of Hormuz (Bunder-e-Abbas) to here is about four miles.”

9

Kashan also known as “Kachan” and is the capital of Kashan County, in the province of Isfahan, Iran. The etymology of the city name comes from the “Kasian”, the original inhabitants of the city, whose remains are found at Tapeh Sialk dating back 9,000 years; later this was changed to "Kashian". Some Indologists believe that this was the ancient

city of Kashi of Aryan people of India. Archeological discoveries in the Sialk Hillocks which lie 2 miles west of Kashan reveal that this region was one of the primary centers of civilization in pre-historic time. The city of Kashan dates back to the Elamite period of Iran with Sialk ziggurat as a testimonial dated to 7,000 years old. Nain (also known as Naein and Naeen) lies 65 miles north of Yazd and 140 km east of Esfahan. The city is 1600 meters above sea levels. Aryans learned to construct Aqueduct before Romans did as there is an underground aqueduct that is 3000 years old.

Tarom is a village in Kakavand-e Gharbi Rural District, Kakavand District, Delfan County, of Lorestan Province of Iran. Lara in the text refers to Lorestan (Luristan) province near Fars. Nikitin continues: “Hormuz is on an island and the sea floods it twice daily. I spent the first Easter here, having arrived here four weeks earlier. I have not mentioned other towns, because there are so 10

many of them. The heat from the sun is intense in Hormuz, a man burns. I remained in Hormuz for a month; on the day of “Radunitsy”, I set off with several horse stallions across the Indian Ocean on a Dabba (Marathi word for Indian ship).”

Approximate Travel route of Nikitin through Iran after landing at Caspian Sea port

Radunitsy is Radonitsa (Russian "Day of Rejoicing"), also spelled Radunitsa, Radonica, or Radunica, in Orthodox Russian Christianity is a commemoration of the departed observed on the second Tuesday of Pascha (Easter) or, in some places (in south-west Russia), on the second Monday of Pascha. That is what Nikitin meant. “By sea to Muscat, we travelled to ten days and from Muscat to Deg (May be Diego Garcia Island), four days, and from Deg to Gujarat, and from Gujarat to Cambay (Khambatt). It is here that the dye and lacquer come from. From Cambay (Khambatt) we sailed to Chaul (Maharashtra), and we entered Chaul in the seventh week after Easter; by sea, it was six weeks to Chaul.” As the name ‘Dabba” implies, the ancient Indian ship look like semi cylindrical in shape and resembles Indian Tiffin cut down in half or Dabba with sails down. They were slow and wind driven. “And here, it is the land of India, their heads uncovered, their chests exposed, their hair tied in a single plait; everyone is barefoot, and they bear children every year, and they all have many children. The men and the women are dark complexioned. Wherever I go, I am followed by crowds, marveling at a strange white man. The Prince there wears a cloth over his head and another around his waist, the nobleman wears a cloth over his shoulders and 11

another around his waist; the Princesses promenade with a cloth across the shoulders, and another around their legs. And the servants of the royals and of the nobility wrap a cloth

Sea route-Monsoon wind-Hormuz, Muscat, Diu, Khambatt to Malabar Coast south India

around their waists, and bear a shield and a mace in their hands; some bear arrows, others daggers, and others with swords, while still others are with bows and arrows; and all are not fully clothed due to heat, and barefoot, and strong, and don’t cut their hair. And the women go about – heads uncovered.” Some of the language the author has audited as this is not customary.” 12

The English author acknowledges the difficulty in Russian translation of English. The author of this article wants to maintain the meaning of what he saw but there are discrepancy in observation and translation to put it in proper words. The pictures will give you a better perspective. Nikitin arrived in India at before the arrival of Vasco de Gama and other Portuguese contingent.

King Zamorin (Samoothiri), ruler of Calicut with his nobles and adviser with Portuguese, illustration of dresses

13

Nikitin’s India portion of Journey and stops in south India- A map

“From Chaul, we went overland to Pali, a journey of eight days, near the Indian mountains. From Pali, we travelled another ten days to Umri (Marya Gosavi), another Indian town. And from Umri is a journey of seven days to Junnar. A khan rules in Junnar – Khan Asad – but he serves the Malik-at-Tujjar.” Asad khan was a tributary chief of Junnar and working for Malik Tujjar whose official name was Muhammad Gavan, then Chief Minister of Bidar, a capital city of Bahmani Sultanate of Deccan. Mahmud Gawan (1411,-1481 AD) was an Iranian by birth. His Iranian name was Khawaja Mahmud Gilani, from the village of Gawan of Persia. He was well-versed in Islamic theology, Persian language, mathematics and he was a proliferate writer of great reputation. He also composed the poetry. He rose to become a Chief Minister in the court of Muhammad Shah-III (1463-1482 AD). Gawan was very wise and very much aware of Indian culture and enjoyed the confidence of locals, nobles and rulers.

Entering Bahmani Sultanate: Nikitin continues: 14

“Khan’s armies are given to him by the Malik, and they are, it is said, about seventy thousand strong. The Malik himself leads forces of about two hundred thousand, and he has been in conflict with the Kafirs for twenty years, who have beaten him more than once, and he has defeated them several times. He goes among his people as Asad Khan, and he has elephants and war-horses, and warriors from Khorasan. His stallions are brought to him from Khorasan and Arabia, some from the lands of the Turks, and some from the realm of the Chagatai (Samarkand), and all of them are brought by sea in “Dabbas – Indian ships.” Kaffir here means Hindu and Hindu King of Vijaya Nagar Empire. Vijayanagar Empire fought several battles and dealt a defeat to Bahmani Sultanate in earlier period but in the end it fell to Islamic marauders. Nikitin continues: “And I, sinner that I am, brought a colt to India, and arrived in Junnar with him, with God’s grace, healthy; the colt (Revolver) had cost me 200 rubles. Winter began in India on the day of the Trinity. I wintered in Junnar over two months. Day and night for four months the country is covered in water and mud (Monsoon season). During these days, they plough the land and sow wheat and rice, and legumes, and other edibles. They make wine from big nuts, called the “hous-e-hind”, (cocoa Nuts) and toddy. Horses are fed with legumes; they prepare “khichri”, (Rice and Lentils) with sugar and butter, and feed it to the horses, although in the mornings, they are given leaves. In India, horses are not bred; in that land, bulls and buffaloes are born and bred – and the people travel on them, and carry goods, and do all these things. The town of Junnar stands on a rock cliff, unfortified, protected by God alone. And the route to that mountain is a day long, walking single-file: the road is so narrow that two people cannot pass each other.” What Nikitin refers above is cocoa nut or Jack fruit wine that has its own natural flavors. The fruits grow abundantly in south India and can be fermented to make wine. Later the Portuguese introduced grapes in south India. Portuguese wine was called “Madera” as it was prepared in the city of Madera, Funchal, an Island off Atlantic, near Lisbon. It is not very clear but wine can be made out of Cocoa nuts and Jack fruit. Cocoa nut water is more useful for its electrolytes and work as a cooler in hot and humid climate where it is easier to dehydrate. The pulp of cocoa nut is edible and in south India they crush it to make chutney. So, it is more likely that Nikitin is talking about Jack fruit that is the size of cocoanut and looks like one. See Jack fruit below.

15

Jackfruit and tree of south India To learn of wine making from jack fruit, follow this link http://www.omicsonline.org/processoptimization-for-fermentation-of-wine-from-jackfruit-artocarpus-heterophyllus-lam-21577110.1000204.php?aid=10935 To make wine from cocoanut see this link: http://www.healthguidance.org/entry/14945/1/How-to-Make-Coconut-Wine.html

Visit to Brothel- Guest House of ill-repute: Going through Nikitin account, you come away with impression that he was a devout catholic based on his account just he began his travel from Moscow as his visit to church of Trinity indicates. He reports that he crossed Persia unmolested when Persia was ruled by Islam. When he landed in India, they forced him to convert to Islam and he claims that he managed to get out of conversion by Khan and was able to maintain his faith because of unexpected visit by a man from Khorasan who he did not know personally. There is every reason to believe that he did not escape forced conversion to Islam as he addresses the Hindus as Kafirs in later account and assumed a Muslim name. Only Muslims dehumanized Hindus and not Christians. The Muslim regarded Christian as Kafirs too. It was his fear that if he wrote actually what happened to him, he will have problem back home upon his return to readopt to the Christianity. In addition to that his description to brothel house to cater to 16

visiting Muslim and Arab traders is not part of the Hindu culture, some exception are possible. Most likely, after conversion, he was sent to Muslim brothel house as his account implies “temporary wives” that is suggestive that he was forced to marry a Muslim woman. Other troubling thing is his verbage. He talks like a converted Muslim by uttering and ranting “O merciful and gracious God” typical of idiotic Muslim rants and Khan as expected cheated him by taking his revolver anyway. All these admissions written down in his own words suggest that he was not spared. This is typical of Muslim mentality towards other religions during the middle ages and it still lingers on in some countries. Here is his account in his own words: “In the Indian lands, merchants are given rest and shelter in the court yards of houses. The hostess cooks meals for them, and arranges beds for them, and sleeps with the guests. If you wish to have intimate relations with her, you pay two jitals; if not, you pay one. There are many temporary wives here, and intimate relations cost almost nothing, for they do love white men. During winter, the commoners wear cloths over their loins, and another across their shoulders, a third on their heads; the princes and noblemen wear coats, and shirts and caftans, a cloth on the shoulder, another to wrap around themselves, and a third to cover their heads(turban). O God, Great God, the True Lord, Gracious God, Merciful God! And in Junnar, the khan took away my colt when he found out that I was not a Muslim, but that I was Russian. And he said to me, “I will return the colt and give you a thousand gold coins, but only if you convert to our faith, to Islam. If you do not convert to Islam, I will take the colt (Revolver) and I will make you pay a thousand gold coins as tax.” And he gave me four days to decide, until the day of the Savior and the fast of the assumption. But the Lord God had mercy on that day, He did not turn His favor away from me, sinner that I am, He did not leave me to die in Junnar among the unholy. On the eve of the Savior’s Day, the treasurer Mohammed of Khorasan arrived, and I bowed to him and begged him to help me. And he went to the city to Asad Khan and asked him not to force me to their faith, and indeed, brought back the colt that the Khan had taken from me. And thus was the miracle of the Lord on His own Day. And so, my Russian Christian brothers, if you want to go to India, leave your faith behind in Russia, and having acknowledged Mohammed, travel to the land of Hindustan.” This account of Nikitin is questionable like he is trying to hide

something as stated earlier. His description does not tally with reality of that age. Then he frets his frustration and started calling Hindus as infidels in next paragraph. This also illustrate that there was no human decency and it is totally 17

absent in Islamic religious philosophy regarding Kafirs and the treatment of humans. He advises other Russians to acknowledge Mohammed before he goes to Hindustan. He similarly downgrades the Chinese women sleeping with foreigners in another section below and claims that they like white man probably showing some kind of complex. This comes out more as distortion to cover-up something a devoted Christian visits will not do like the visit to the house of “ill-repute” and blaming on others. It is also understood that he was trying to survive in an unexpected environment. He did not seem to have many options and created a cover-up for self protection in case it will be discovered. No mother in the right mind will abandon the child she created. Here come Nikitin’s rants: “They lied to me, those infidel dogs: they said that they had many goods, but there are none for our lands: it was obvious that it all was for the Muslim lands, the pepper and the dyes, all cheap. They who transport goods across the sea to Muslim lands do so untaxed. But we cannot transport goods without paying duties. There are many taxes, and the sea is filled with pirates. The pirates are Kafirs, not Muslims or Christians: they pray to stone pillars, and recognize neither Christ nor Mohammed.” Due to the practice of unfavorable treatment to non-Muslim traders, Arabs profited and that created a built in disadvantage for traders like Nikitin who travelled three seas. For that he needs to blame Islam. The lack of investigation and planning did hurt him. “From Junnar, we departed by land and went to Bidar, their chief city. We travelled to Bidar for a month and from Bidar to Kulangiri for five days, and from Kulangiri to Gulbarga, five days. Between these cities, there are many towns; some days we crossed three towns, and other days, four: there were as many towns as Kos. From Chaul to Junnar, there are twenty Kos; from Junnar to Bidar, forty Kos; from Bidar to Kulangiri, nine Kos; and from Bidar to Gulbarga, nine Kos.” The Kos is an ancient measurement of India and has been used for over five thousand years in India and it equates to 2.25 miles. Nikitin continues: “In Bidar, they trade horse, damask (Linen like mixed cloth), silk and various other products, as well as black slaves; there are no other goods. All the goods are from Hindustan; of consumables are only vegetables; there are no products for the Russian land. And here, everyone is black, all are villains, their women are whores; everywhere is sorcery and lies; 18

servants kill their masters with poison.” The prostitution is world’s oldest profession. Arabs and Muslims imported many Muslim women from their home country and other places as slaves for their brothel house as it was forbidden to frequent kafir women as per Kuranic laws. Nikitin was so frustrated with bad information that he cursed everybody. The poor information and bad judgment led him to this expensive journey for sole purpose of monetary gain where his faith was breached. Throughout his journey from Caspian Sea to Iran, he does not check out the details on trades in Iran. All spices and goods demanded in west passed through Hormuz. He could have checked that out or buy from there and return back home. Instead he took a risky journey and suffered consequences of conversion and loss of monies. The poisoning of the rulers by many disgruntled prince was common in Turk history during their rule in India. They maintained the large harems and had many princes who conspired constantly against each other. Aurungzeb killed all his brother and sisters through treasury and deception. He imprisoned his father. They are treacherous bunch. Nikitin continues his account: “In India, the royalty are all Khorasani, and so is the nobility. The Hindus are all on foot, and walk before the Khorasanians, who ride stallions; the rest are on foot, walking briskly, half clothed and barefoot, shield in one hand, and sword in the other, some with large straight bows with arrows. They wage war from elephant-back. In the vanguard is the infantry; behind them is the armored Khorasanians cavalry, both men and horses are armored. On the heads and tusks of the elephants are attached massive wrought spikes, weighing about a kantar; the elephants are heavily armored, and on the elephants are turrets, in which are twelve armored men, all of whom carry guns and arrows.” When India was conquered by Muslims, It was forbidden by Muslim rulers to allow Hindus to ride a horse. This practice continued due to fear that Rajput or warrior Hindu tribes would take the swords against Musulmans. So, the sales and exchange of horse were tightly controlled by the Muslim rulers and their proxies. When Hindu Shivaji rose against Muslims, he looted Muslims in a surprise attack to steal their horses and possession and then disappeared in the mountain. His guerilla warfare was very successful that built the Maratha Empire and came pretty close to defeating Moguls. However, poor tactics in building alliance with northern Hindu kingdoms and pillaging Indian heartland to feed the army, led to mistrust and loss of allies that cost the battle loss at Panipat at the hands of Nadir Shah. Learning from the history, India has no choice but to regain and maintain the top notch military power against any intruders foreign or domestic.

19

Indian people of early era

20

War elephants

Khorasani Turkish army

“There is one place here where Sheikh Aláuddín, a holy man, lies and where they hold a fair. Once a year, the entire country descends upon the fair to trade; the fair lasts ten days. It is about twelve Kos from Bidar. They bring horses – up to twenty thousand horses – to sell, and indeed all manner of goods. In Hindustan, this fair is the greatest; every good is bought and sold during the days of the feast of Sheikh Aláuddín (or, in our reckoning, the Protection of the Holy Virgin). And there is an owl bird in this land that flies every night, calling “hookhook“; and if it perches on someone’s house, there someone will die; and if someone tried to kill it, it burns him with fire thrown from its beak. Here, too, we find Memmons (carnivore animals like tigers) predators that snatch chickens, and live in the hills or among cliffs. (He uses the same words for Sri-Lanka) And monkeys, that live in the forest. They have a Monkey Prince, who goes about with his cohort.( he is referring to Hanuman God and monkey from forest who come to steal the food and eat) If anyone were to offend a monkey, it would complain to the Prince, and he would send his forces to the offender; they, arriving in town, wreck houses and kill people. It is said that the hordes of monkeys are very large, and they have their own language. They bear many offspring, and if any is born orphaned, then it is discarded along the roads. Some Hindu might then collect it and teach it various trades; if he were to sell it, he would do so at night so it wouldn’t find its way back to his house; or he might teach it tricks to amuse other people. (This is unfounded tales) Spring begins with the Protection of the Holy Virgin; the fete in honor of Sheikh Aláuddín (may be a Sufi saint) is also held at the beginning of spring, two weeks after the feast of the Protection; the fete lasts eight days. Spring lasts three months, and so does summer, and winter, and autumn.” Here his account is bit unclear.” We are uncertain on of monkey other than what is specifies above). There was also Sheikh Allauddin in Bidar history who was a ruler whose tomb is still 21

there in Bidar. He was formally known as Ala-ud-Din Ahmed Shah Bahmani who ruled 143658 AD. As far as we know there are no records of Sufi saints with the same name from Bidar.

Bidar-Capital city of Bahmani sultanate: “Bidar is the capital of infidel Hindustan. The city is big, and there are numerous people in it. The Sultan is young, twenty years old; the nobles rule; the knights are Khorasanians and so are the warriors. Here dwells the Khorasanians nobleman, Malik-at-Tujjar (Mohamed Gawan, who was Persian), who leads a force of two hundred thousand, while the Malik Khan has a hundred thousand and the Farad-Khan has twenty thousand; and many khans have ten thousand fighters. The sultan himself leads three hundred thousand men-at-arms. The land is heavily populated. The villagers are very poor, while the noblemen own vast lands and are very wealthy. The nobles are carried on silver palanquins; they are preceded by horses, twenty of them, in golden trim, and they are followed by three hundred riders, and five hundred foot soldiers, and ten buglers, and ten drummers, and ten flautists. And when the sultan steps out with his mother and his wife, he is followed by ten thousand cavalry and fifty thousand infantry, and two hundred elephant, all in gold trim; before him, a hundred buglers, a hundred dancers, three hundred horse in gold trim, and a hundred monkeys, and a hundred courtesans, who are called gaurykis.”

Palanquin and sultan’s procession

“There are seven gates to the royal palace and the gates are attended by the hundred attendants and a hundred scribes. Some of them record who enters the palace, while others 22

keep notes of who leaves. Strangers are not allowed in. The palace of the sultan is very beautiful, with intricate carvings and gilt on the stone walls. And in the palace there are vases everywhere. At night, the city of Bidar is protected by a thousand guards under the command of Kotwal (guardian of city fort), on horse, armored, and in each one’s hands is a torch.” “I sold my stallion in Bidar for sixty-eight futons. I had fed him for a year. In Bidar, snakes (cobra) roam the streets, as long as two fathoms. I returned to Bidar from Kulangiri during the Fast of St. Philip, and I sold the stallion on Christmas. And I dwelt here, in Bidar, till the Great Lent, and befriended many Hindus. I revealed my faith to them, said that I was not a Muslim, but a Christian, a believer in Jesus, and that my name is Afanasy, and my Muslim name is Hoja Yusuf Khorasani. And the Hindus hid nothing from me, neither their food, nor their trade, nor their prayers, nor anything else, and did not conceal their wives from my eyes.” Here, the real truth comes out that he was cheated converted to Islam with a new name. It is recognized that this was the involuntary conversion. “I asked them of their own beliefs, and they told me: we believe in Adam (Manu or Christian equivalent of Adam or Adinath Shiva), and bhoots (Hindu Idols of all Gods including Shiva), and besides Adam, his entire race. And there are eighty-four (part of sacred numerology) faiths in India, and all of them believe in bhoots (Shiva). And people with different beliefs do not drink with each other, or eat, or marry each other. Some of them eat mutton, or chicken, or fish, or eggs, but nobody eats beef.” (Caste driven beliefs). The identities of Bhoots are known when he mentions going to Paravat (mountain) and visit the temple of Bhoots. The next paragraph hints the Shiva, Ganpati, Hanuman and other deities of Hinduism all housed in the temple. “Having spent four months in Bidar, I made arrangements with the Hindus to go to Parvat, their shrine (bhoots khaneh-Temple), that is, their Jerusalem, or what is for Muslims their Mecca. I travelled with the Hindus to the shrine for a month. At the shrine, there was a five day feast (Mahashivrati). It is a great shrine, made of stone, and cut into the stone are the acts of their deities. Twelve displays are cut around the shrine, showing the deity performing miracles, appearing in various guises: firstly, as a man, secondly, as a man but with an elephant’s trunk, thirdly, a man with a monkey face, fourthly, half man, half ferocious beast complete with tail. Cut into stone, the tail is a yard long, cast through the man. For the feast of the deity, the entire country of India arrives at the shrine. Men, old and young, women and girls, all shave their hair at the shrine, beards and heads, and enter the shrine. For each head, they take six pence for the deity, and for the horse, about four futs. Around twenty thousand 23

lakh people arrive at the shrine, and sometimes it happens that a hundred thousand lakh arrive. In the shrine, cut out of black stone, is a massive idol, with a tail extending outwards; its right arm is raised high, stretched like Justinian, and its left hand holds a spear. It is unadorned except for a loincloth, and its face is simian. Other idols are completely naked, wearing nothing, their shame uncovered, and their wives are carved naked as well, with their shame and their children. And before the deity stands an enormous bull, cut out of black stone and gilded entirely. The people kiss its hooves and shower it with flowers. And the deity is showered with flowers.” The most famous cave temple in Bidar is Narishimha Jharani and Papnash Shiva temples that have Shiva, Vishnu and all other deities. See the links. http://www.karnataka.com/bidar/papnash-shiva-temple/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narasimha_Jharni

Culture of Hindus of Bidar: “Hindus do not eat any meat, beef, mutton, fowl, fish, pork, although they have many pigs but they do not eat them. They eat twice a day, but not at night, and drink neither wine nor meat. And they do not eat or drink with the Muslims, or even with each other (as per caste rules), they do not eat or drink, nor with their wives. They eat rice, and khichri (rice and lentils cooked together) with butter, and various greens (vegetables), and cook these with butter and milk, and eat only with their right hands, and take nothing with their left hands. They have not heard of knives or spoons. And, on their journeys, they each carry their own pots to cook porridge. They turn away from Muslims, to prevent them from looking at their pots or food. If a Muslim casts his eye on the food, then the Hindu will not eat it. That is why they eat covered with a napkin, so that nobody would see. They pray to the east (Sun worship), like the Russians. They raise both hands high and place them on their foreheads, then lie down on the ground, stretched out on the ground – these are their obeisance. When they sit, they wash their hands and feet and rinse their mouths. Their shrines are without gates, oriented to the east, and the deities stand facing the east. If a Hindu dies, he is burnt, (cremation) and his ashes scattered in the river. And when a child is born, the husband takes it into his arms; a son is named by his father, a daughter by her mother. When someone comes to them or is about to leave, they genuflect in monastic style (Namaste with folded hands), prey while touching the ground with both hands, all in silence.” Very informative and accurate description by Nikitin.

24

“In Parvat (Cave temple at mountain), they go on a great fast to their deity. Here is their Jerusalem; what Mecca is for the Muslims and Jerusalem for the Russians, that is Parvat for the Hindus. And they travel bare, clad only in loin clothes, and the women are bare, clad only in loin cloth, and others are veiled, and wearing much jewelry about their necks, and bracelets on their hands, and golden rings. O God! And inside, into the shrine, they travel on bullocks whose horns have been covered with wrought copper, and three hundred little bells around their necks, and hooves covered with copper. And they call their bullock acha”. Acha is a way of moving a bull forward. It is a sound to signal a bull to move, the traveler may have misheard the word. Hindus address their bulls as father and their cows as mother. They bake bread and prepare their food over dung fires, and mark their faces and foreheads and entire bodies with the ash. On Sundays and Mondays, Hindus eat only once in a day. In India, there are many unattached women, and that is why they are cheap: if you have intimate relations with her, give her two copper coins68; if you want to throw your money to the winds, give her six. And there you have it. Slave-concubines are cheap: four coins for good one; five coins if she is black and lovely, a dark jewel, small and good.” (This is some mistranslation or misunderstanding on part of Nikitin. They value the importance of animals due to their use in agriculture and take good care but do not treat them like father and mother.) “From Parvat, I arrived at Bidar fifteen days before the Muslim festival of Ulu Bairam. I do not know when it will be Easter, the Sunday feast of Christ; I am guessing by the signs: Easter arrives nine or ten days ahead of the Muslim Bairam. I have nothing with me, not one book; I took them with me from Russia, but when I was robbed, I lost them, and I did not observe the rites of the Christian faith. I do not observe the Christian feasts, neither Easter nor Christmas; I do not keep the fast on Wednesdays and Fridays. And, dwelling among the unbelievers, I pray to God to save me: “Lord God, You are the True God, the Great God, the Merciful God, the All-Merciful and All-Hallowed One, the One God, King of Glory, the Creator of Heaven and Earth.” Bayram ("Bairam") is the Turkic word derived from Persian and Sogdinians and it is nationally-celebrated festival or holiday for Muslims of Turkic and Persian origin.

Empire of Vijayanagar: “The Sultan came to Gulbarga with Malik-at-Tujjar (Gawan) and his forces on the fifteenth day after Ulu Bairam. The war was not a success for him. They captured one Hindu town, but many of his men died and much of the treasury was spent. The great Hindu prince is mighty, and his army is large. His fortress is on a mountain, and his capital Vijayanagar is very great. There are three moats by the city, and a river flows through it. To one side of the capital are dense jungles, and on the other side is a valley, a wonderful place, suitable for all. That side is 25

not passable – the route goes through the town; the town cannot be taken from any side: the mountain is huge, and the depths of the forest thick and thorny. The Sultan’s armies stood below the capital for a month, and many men died of thirst, and many more died of hunger. They could see the water, but could not get to it. Hodja Malik-at-Tujjar captured another Hindu town; he captured it with force, having fought night and day; for twenty days, his forces did not drink or eat, but assailed the city with cannon. And five thousand of his elite warriors perished in the siege. He took the town and killed twenty thousand men and women, and took another twenty thousand, both young and old, as prisoner. The prisoners were sold at ten teneks a head and some at five, and the children were sold at two teneks apiece. There was no treasure, and he didn’t capture the capital.” This is the classic example of subjugation of Hindu and world should record this. “From Gulbarga, I proceeded to Kalloor. Carnelian is produced in Kalloor, and it is processed here and transported throughout the world from here. Three hundred weapon smiths dwell in Kalloor, (Kalloor is located in the state of Tamil Nadu, India), decorating weapons. I stayed there five months and went thence to Golconda. There is a great market there. From there I went to Gulbarga and from Gulbarga to Aland. From Aland, I went to Amendri and from Amendri to Naryasa and from Naryasa to Suri and from Suri to Dabhol, a port on the Indian Ocean, my departure port. (See Nikitin’s land route in India above)” “Dabhol is a large town and people come here from the Indian and the Ethiopian seas. Here I, accursed Afanasy, slave of the Highest God, Creator of Heaven and Earth, be thought to myself of the Christian faith, and the Baptism of Christ, and the fasts established by the holy fathers, and the apostolic precepts, and focused my mind to return to Russia. I boarded a Dabba and discussed the fare on the ship – and I paid two gold coins for the journey to Hormuz. I sailed away from Dabhol during the Muslim fast, three months before Easter.” He departs India from Dabhol as shown in the map heading to Hormuz. His notes dwell into comparison and recollections of various places he saw and what he had heard and he writes them down for the readers. He endured conversion and hardship but gained knowledge of unknown world and for that he showed exemplary courage and did what he had to do to survive.

Return to Russia more or less empty handed without trades: “And I am returning to Russia with the thought: I have lost my faith; I have kept the infidel fasts. The month of March passed and I started to fast with the Muslims on Sunday, I fasted for a month, (Ramadan) ate no meat, took no Muslim food, ate bread and water twice daily, 26

and did not lie with a woman. And I prayed to Christ Almighty who created Heaven and Earth, and did not address God by any other name: Lord God, Merciful God, Lord God, God is Great, God is the King of Glory, All-Merciful God – it is all you, O Lord.” Here is another proof that he fully converted to Islam. His travel was success but the trade was not a success. The summary of his travel and his impression is given below and describes various commodities cited by him verifies with other traveler’s accounts. Nikitin says: “Hormuz is a great harbor, and people come here from all over the world; there is every kind of merchandise here; whatever is born anywhere in the world, you will find in the Hormuz. The duty is onerous: on any good, they levy a tenth.” As hindsight, he should have paid the duties and established the trade and return back home but in search for cheaper price he had to endure the hardship and faced the conversion. “Cambay (Khambatt) is the harbor for the entire Indian sea. And they produce here alacha and rough linen, (a form of textile products) and also the blue dye (indigo), and lac (resins), and cornelian (a semiprecious stone consisting of an orange or orange-red variety of chalcedony.) and salt (Guelph of Khambatt). Dabhol (Malabar) is also a large port. Horses from Egypt are brought here, and from Arabia, and Khorasan, Turkestan, from Bandar-Hormuz; from here, on dry land, it is a month to Bidar and Gulbarga. And Kozhikode (Calicut) is the port for the entire Indian sea. God forbid that any vessel pass by it: if anyone passes by it, he will not remain safe on the sea for much longer.(Pirates) And there is grown black pepper and ginger(South India) and Muscat flowers, and areca-nut(betel nuts, sopari), and cinnamon (Taj), and cloves, and spicy roots, and adrak (Ginger roots), and various other roots. And everything here is cheap. And slaves are numerous, good and black (refers to Ethiopians slaves brought by Arabs and Turks often referred by Indian as “Habsi”). In Raichur (Golkanda), diamonds are produced, from old and new mines. They are sold at five rubles a carat; the really fine ones are sold at 10 rubles a carat. Five keni for a carat of diamond from the new mines, black stones are four to six keni, and white diamond is one teneks. Diamonds are produced in stone mountains; and paid for by the cubit of those stone mountains – two thousand gold funts for a new mine, ten thousand for an old mine. Malik-Khan owns those lands, serving the Sultan at a distance of thirty Kos from Bidar.” What other things, he had heard from other traveler? “And Ceylon – not an unimportant port on the Indian Ocean, and there, on a high peak, lies the forefather Adam.(Jewish myth from bible) And near that peak one finds precious stones – rubies, fatis, agates, garnets, crystal, and corundum. Elephants are born there, and they are priced by size, and cloves are sold by weight. And the port of Shabbat on the Indian Ocean is also big. Khorasanians merchants are paid daily wages in teneks (Tankha), both big and small. 27

When a Khorasanians weds, the ruler of Shabbat gives him a thousand teneks for sacrifice and fifty teneks every month as allowance. In Shabbat is produced silk and sandalwood and pearls – and all are cheap. And the claim of the Hebrews that the citizens of Shabbat are Jews – this is false. They are not Jews, nor are they Muslims, or Christians; some of them follow a Hindu faith. They do not eat or drink with Jews or Muslims. Everything in Shabbat is cheap. Silk is as abundant as sugar, and everything is very cheap. Memons and monkeys dwell in their forests, and they attack people on the roads, and so because of these Mammon and monkeys, the people dare not travel at night. Nikitin implies the local thieves as Mammon as bible implies, not people of Mammon or Memon faith. “And Pegu is a large port as well. Indian dervishes (Generally applies to sages of all Indian faiths, mostly Buddhist but he may have meant merchant as well who sell beads and stones for sages) dwell there, and precious stones are produced there: Mani, (pearl, rubies) Yakut, kirpuks (is burgundy or ruby like stone), and the dervishes sell these stones.” “The Chinese port is also a big port. Ceramics are made there and sold by weight, cheaply. wives there sleep with their men in the daytime, and at night, go to the visiting foreigners and sleep with them, and they give the foreigners money, and bring with them delicious food, and sweet wine, and ply the merchants with food and wine, so that they are loved by them, and they love the merchants, white men, because their own men are black. And if the wife conceives a child, then the husband gives the merchant a gift. If a white child is born, the merchant is given three hundred teneks, and if a black child is born, then the merchant gets nothing, save for the food and drink, which is deemed free by Chinese custom.”

He has recollection of his country comparing various places: “In the district of Sivas (Kanyakumari, Tamilnadu) as in the land of Georgia, everything is in abundance. And everything in the land of the Turks is plentiful. And so is plentiful Moldavia (Romania) and food is cheap there. And Podol (Kiev, Russia) is plentiful. But God save Russia! O Lord, save her! God, preserve her! There is no country like her in this world, even if the Emirs of Russia are at each others’ throats. May there be justice in Russia! My God, my God, my God, my God!” We will limit this article to his experience in India and will not cover his return journey. However, I will show this in Map form. On his way back, Nikitin visited Muscat, the Arabian sultanate of Fartak (Yemen), Somalia and Trabzon (Turkey, Black sea region), and in 1472 AD arrived at Feodosiya (Crimea, Ukraine) by crossing the Black Sea. On his way to Tver, Nikitin died not far from Smolensk in the autumn of that year.

28

Segments of Return journeys from India as per his text

His forced conversion to Islam by Asaf Khan, a Khorasani Turk: Muslim custom requires circumcision. Yakov Lurye, an editor of Nikitin's Journey tried to defend him by denying his conversion as being doubtful as the rules in Russia will be put to death if discovered. We know he gave out the hint several times that he was converted. In addressing god, he never mentioned the word Jesus. This is why he concealed the fact but evidence is there. No one got a chance to check him out as he died on his way back in Crimea not far from the Russian border. So, he paid a heavy price and that is why he used the language he used against Hindus. He came uninvited and became victims of tyranny of Islam. 29

Nothing new that anyone does not know. Some notes are extracted from references that had also analyzed the transcripts and are given below for further information.

Notes: Afanasy Nikitin’s journal to India can be dated from the middle of 1471 AD to the beginning of 1474 AD based on a study of the relationships between the dates of Russian calendar and Moslem lunar calendar in approximation. The reference is to the advance on Kazan by the brother of Ivan III, Prince Yuri Vassilyevich Dmitrovski, which ended in 1469 AD, of the putative ambassador, Vassily Papin, of the Grand Duke to Shirvan, there is no record of Smolensk till A.D. 1514 that it was in the dominion of the Lithuanian state. He was appointed by Ivan III, during the invasion of Khan Akhmat in 1480 AD and led the fortification of Vladimir in 1485 AD. The patronymic (surname) of the author of the memoir is only mentioned at the beginning of the manuscript (but appears only in the Trotsky manuscript, not in the rewritten chronicles). Sea of Derbent is the Caspian Sea. Sea of Hindustan is the Indian Ocean. The main Cathedral of Tver can be dated from the 12th century AD. From its name, the land of Tver was often called the domain of the Holy Savior. Mikhail Borisovich was Grand Duke of Tver during 1461-1485 AD. Gennady was Bishop of Tver, 1461-1477 AD, previously a boyar from Moscow. Boris Zakharyich was the Governor of commander of Tver forces in the battles of Vassily. Dmitri Shemyakii established the order of Borozdin, later absorbed into the service of Moscow. Trinitarian Monastery in Kalyazin, a town in Tver, established by Father Superior Makarii, as mentioned by Nikitin. The Church of Boris and Gleb was situated within the monastery. Uglich was a town in the possession of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Ostroma-on-Volga numbered among the possessions of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Nizhny Novgorod was in the domain of the Grand Duchy of Moscow since 1392 AD. The phrase two weeks repeated later in the sentence seems to be an error of the transcriber. Shah Farrukhsiyar ruled the Khanate of Shirvan, 1462-1500 AD. Sultan Kassim was the second ruler of the Khanate of Astrakhan. Dabba (Marathi) – a sailing boat without an upper deck. There was a massive import of horses into India to replenish the cavalry and fulfill the demands of the local nobility over many centuries. The allusion is to the deep blue dye, indigo, and the preparation of lacquer. The reference is to the turban (fota in Persian) and dhoti (Indian), which along with the women’s clothing, the sari, was made of rough textile. Asad Khan of Junnar was a native of Gilan, as mentioned in Indian chronicles as a person close to the Grand Vizier, Mahmud Gawan, who bore the title Malik-at-Tujjar, the Lord of Merchants. Kafir (Arabic) applies to all non-Muslims (unbelievers). Nikitin as a converted Muslim followed Islamic tradition by calling 30

the Hindus as Kafirs but he was not prejudicial as he accompanied them to their temples; later on, he called them Hindustanis or Indians. Hous-e-Hind was the Persian word for coconuts grown in south India. The word Damask is used for a colored silk fabric, embroidered with brocade. Futuns may mean golden coins known as Fanam used as trading currency. Boot is a generic Muslim term for an idol initiated from Bud or Buddha idol; Bootkhana (Muslim word) for house of an idol, usually a temple or place of worship. Sheshken – a silver coin, worth six kens. Lakh (Hindi) – a hundred thousand. Copper coin (Nikitin called it a jitals). Mead is called (Indian mudh), word for honey. Ulu Bairam – a great holiday, the same as Kurban Bairam (Feast of the Sacrifice) – one of the most important holidays in Islam. There are 10 to 13 months in the Islamic lunar calendar, whose correspondence with the solar calendar varies every year. Later on, Nikitin says that the feast was held mid-May, from which the year can be determined – 1472 AD. Alacha (Tatar word, meaning ‘mixed’) – fabric of silk and cotton yarn and Pestryad means Rough linen or cotton fabric of the multi-colored threads. Adrak (Persian) – a type of ginger, Fatis – a stone used in the manufacture of buttons; Babaguri (Persian) word for stone agate; Binchai (possibly from the Persian banavsha) – garnet; crystal – possibly beryl; sumbada – corundum. Lokot (cubit – roughly the length of the lower arm from the elbow to the fingertips) – an ancient Russian measure of length, about 38-47 centimetres. Tenek – a silver coin, of varying value in different places. Mani (Sanskrit) – ruby; yakut (Arabic) – corundum, more often blue (sapphire), rarely red (ruby); kirpuk (carbuncle) – ruby. Ammon – a precious stone, possibly diamond. Pochka (carat) – an ancient Russian measure of weight for precious stones (‘heavy’ – one twentieth; ‘light’ – one twenty-fifth of a zolotnik. Approximately 0.21 grammes and 0.17 grammes respectively). Sadak – a set of weapons: bow and quiver with arrows. Jahan-shah Kara-Koyun, ruler of Iran and neighboring lands, was killed in November 1467, following conflict with his rival, Uzun Hassan-Beg. Sultan Abu-Said, ruler of Central Asia, raided the Transcaucasia; surrounded by Uzun Hassan-Beg and his ally Farrukhsiyar, was captured, and executed in February 1469 AD. Mohammed Yadigar – rival of Abu-Said – seized his kingdom following his death. According to the Indian chronicles of the wars of 1469-1472, two coastal towns were taken – Sangmeshawar and Goa; the latter, as evident from the correspondence of Mahmud Gawan, was invested February 1, 1472. The reference is to the siege of the fortress of Kalan in the same war. In agreement with contemporary Indian chronicles: three towns were seized – Warangal, Kondapalli, and Rajahmundry. The commander of the forces was Malik Hassan, titled Nizam-ul-Mulk. 31

Virupaksha II, Maharaja of Vijayanagar, ruled 1465-1485. Nikitin refers to him as the Hindu Avdon and Hindu Sultan Kadam in the sequel. Sultan Mohammed III advanced on Belgaum on March 15, 1473 (per the correspondence of Mahmud Gawan).

REFERENCES: 1. http://russiapedia.rt.com/prominent-russians/exploring-russia/afanasy-nikitin/ 2. http://www.rusliterature.org/afanasy-nikitins-voyage-beyond-three-seas/#.V8hDuDUW9w 3. https://www.amazon.com/Afanasy-Nikitins-Voyage-Beyond-1466-1472/dp/5050000599 4. http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Nikitin.html 5. http://in.rbth.com/arts/history/2016/08/06/from-tver-to-calicut-retracing-afanasynikitins-life-in-India_618137 6. http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/7202/ The Khozhenie za tri morya of Afanasy Nikitin: a critical edition by Brown, Jacqueline Margaret (1984), Durham university, download PDF book on the link 7. Indo-Persian Travels in the Age of Discoveries: 1400-1800 (Cambridge University Press, 2007) by Muzzafar Alam, Sanjay Subramanian. 8. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journey_Beyond_Three_Seas 9. http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Nikitin.html 10. https://tangentialia.wordpress.com/2009/06/22/afanasii-nikitins-journey-across-threeseas/

32