Puzzling Neighbors salvador borrego | Religion & Spirituality ...

SALVADOR BORREGO E.

PUZZLING NEIGHBORS A HISTORICAL GUIDE TO UNDERSTANDING MODERN MEXICO

Published by Salvador Borrego E. Apartado Postal 61-088 M4xico 6, D.F. C.P. 06600

SPANISH TITLE: PUEBLOS CAUTIVOS C o p y r i g h t b y t h e A u t h o r . 1 9 8 7 All rights reserved. 1st Spanish Edition, April 1987 1st English Language Edition, Dece mber 1987 Translator's note: Where the author has quoted, in Spanish, words or text originally expressed in English, such quotations have been retranslated back into English, for w h i c h r e a s o n t h e q u o t a t i o n s w h i c h a p p e a r i n t h i s b o o k may not coincide precisely with the original English words o r t e x t. E v e r y e f f o r t h a s b e e n m a d e t o p r e s e r v e t h e e x a c t sense.

PROLOGUE History is not chance. It is not a series of fortuitous events. Each of its stages is created by individual men. History is not an entity with an existence of its own, alien to humanity. It is not a series of unavoidable and inexplicable events. History is the work of human action. It is a result of the actions of men who decide, or who accommodate, or of men who are ingenous, and others who allow themselves to b e swept up by the current of alien wills. History is the work o f t h o s e w h o s t r u g g l e t o c r e a t e r e a l i t i e s a n d t h e struggle of those who oppose them, and of those who prefer t o r e m a i n b e t w e e n l i g h t a n d s h a d o w . I t i s h u m a n interaction. History is created by men, and nothing occurs without sufficient cause. Even that which appears to be chance has its cause. If Napoleon expected victory at Waterloo with the arrival of Marshal Grouchy, and if his defeat was caused because the Prussian general Blucher arrived earlier to save Wellington, this was not an a c c id e n ta l e v e n t . B l u c h e r , wh o wa s 7 3 y e a r s o ld a n d i l l, wa s m o r e c o u ra g eo u s an d a c tiv e th a n G r o u c hy . If in the decisive battle of Tecoac, General Manuel Gonzalez arrived to reinforce Porfirio Diaz before General Alonso could help General Alatorre, this also did not occur b y c h a n c e . G o n z a l e z h a d m o v e d m o r e s k i l l f u l l y t h a n h i s r iv a l. If in the grand battle of Kursk the Soviets placed their cannons in the form of a funnel aimed directly on the route of penetration that was to be followed by the German tanks, this was not by chance nor by guesswork. The Soviets had in their hands the German plan of attack. It is customary to ascribe to chance the subtle s u c c e s s i o n o f e v e n t s w h o s e c a u s e s i t h a s n o t b e e n p o s s i b l e . to establish, but nevertheless the causes exist. If at present there are so many nations who live under forms which are alien to their true essences, and who march like captives along alien roads, this is not the work of chance. There exist forces which compel the m to th i s , a l th o u g h w e d o n o t h a v e th e p r im a r y p r o o f s .

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I t c o u l d b e s a i d t h a t " L a b o r a t o r y H i s t o r y" o p e r a t e s exclusively on the basis of pri mar y documents; however, many clues ar e not t o be f ound t her e, j ust as i n a l abor at ory examination, many filterable viruses can elude our o bser vat i on , an d t h ese act i ve el e me nt s mu st be det ect ed by other means. I mention this because the great success of the books wr i t t en by Sal vador Bor r ego, i s at tr i but abl e t o t he f act t hat they identify the genealogical tree of the great historical events. This is why P u z z l i n g N e i g h b o r s . takes as it s st arti ng point the Reformation and the Counter -Reformation; not b e c a us e w h a t i s h ap pe n i n g t o d a y w a s t h en d e t er mi n e d , b u t because t here, i n the 16t h Cent ur y, a f or ce wit h a hist or y of thousands of years, adopted new religious forms, new economic policies and a new political strategy to give a new and vi gorous i mpul se t o it s str uggl e, and t hi s i nfl uence comes down to our own days, and operates powerfully on the first power of the world, with unavoidable r epercussi ons on t he hi stor y of Mexico. Javier Martinez Mena. Gomez Palacio, Durango.

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CHAPTER 1 The Synthesis of Enormous Forces Luther personified diverse currents which up to his time had remained dispersed. With the exception of a very small circle of " i n i t i a t e s " , a l l E u r o p e w a s s u r p r i s e d b y t h e e x p l o s i o n o f th e Protestant Reformation in 1517, set off and headed by Luther. A gigantic echo reverberated inte rnationally, and in that struggle were implicated kings, princes, intellectuals, artisans, farmers, and whole nations. The "Protestants", who were at first called Evangelists, spoke out against the riches of the Catholic Church, against the worldly life of many of its members, a g a in s t r e l ig i o u s in d i f f e r e n c e , a g a i n s t t h e V a t i c a n , e t c . , a n d to this uproar was added the motivation of many who were anxious to confiscate ecclesiastic properties. The spark that Luther used was the protest over the s a le o f in d u lg e n c e s f o r th e c o n s tr u c t io n o f th e Ch u r c h o f S t. Peter at Rome. The fire of the Reformation spread with unexpected rapidity and threatened to consume everything. It seemed as if the Catholic Church was to be reduced to a weak m in o r ity . J u s t a s ic e b e r g s s h o w o n ly a s m a ll p a r t o f th e ir m a s s above the surface, Luther was only the tip of an iceberg. Be lo w h im la y a v a s t f o r c e th a t h a d b e e n a c t in g in d is p e r s e d condition during many centuries. The French historian Jean Lombard is one of those who has made this clea r, for he s a y s , " th e R e f o r m a t i o n d o e s n o t r e s u l t f r o m t h e a c t i o n o f o n e ma n, no r fr om th e e ff e c t o f one d oc tr in e ; it do e s n o t carry with it anything original. In destroying Catholicism, t h e universal character of the Church, in provoking a rupture with Rom e, the Reformation separates Christianity f r o m i t s u n i v e r s a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s . . . i t r e d u c e s i t s o l e ly t o t h e Hebrew sources of the Old Testament.

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"This new synthesis, carried forward by very old her etical curr ents , is not the wor k of s ome personalities , no matter how forceful they might be, but of societies and groups, and of shadowy forces slowly formed, which centered their aims in convergent and continuous fashion agains t the common en emy: the Chur ch."(1) He adds that numerous sects spread their influences within the councils of the secret societies until one of these, the Brotherhood of the Rosicrucians, was able to effect the s y n t h e s is of these forces and to act simultaneously in the political and in the religious spheres. This Brotherhood was the co -ordinator, and the s pir it which moved the R ef ormation. Luther's movement took its nourishment or impulse from several sects, among which were the following:. The GNOSTICS. This sect enjoyed its per iod of greatest popularity in the 3rd Century, and held that it possessed "absolute knowledge". Some of its groups called themselves Gnostic Christians, many of them where incorporated later into Manichaeism. T h e M A NI C H A E I A NS . M a n i c h a e u s , w h o w a s b o r n i n Babylon, called himself the last and greatest of the prophets. He held that man is the work of Satan, who furnished man with a portion of the spirit that he had s t o l e n f r o m G o d . T h e M a n c h a e i a n s w h e r e r ig o r o u s l y a s c e t i c ( mortification of the senses) and they where fanatic rivals of t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h . A t o n e t im e e v e n St . A u g u s t in e w a s attracted to them. T h e C A T H AR S . A n o th e r b r a n c h o f th e M an i c h a e i a n s , with the variant that they considered themselves "purer". They extended through France, Germany, England and Italy. The ALBIGENSIANS. The first site from which they expanded was the French city of Albi, in the 12th and 13th Centuries. They were opposed to the ecclesiastic hierarchy and to the s acr aments . T h e L O L L AR D S . T h ey o r i g i n a t e d in th e 1 6t h C e n t ur y in Holland. They said that they were the most fervent followers of the New T estament, against the Church. (1) Quien Inspir6 La Reforma? Jean Lombard Coeurderoy. Madrid, 1979.

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The VALDENSIANS. This was a sect created by Peter of V al do, i n t h e Fr e nc h ci t y of L yon d ur i n g t h e 12t h Cent ur y. They considered that religion should base itself, and emphasize, poverty and the poor; they opposed the Mass and they extended from France into Switzerland and Poland. In 1532, they came over in great numbers to the Reformation. The CABALISTS. These propagated by word of mouth t he Jewi sh tradit ion that clai ms t o possess t he hi dden secret of the Old Testament. Through anagrams, t ranspositions and combinati ons of l etter s or Hebrew wor ds, t hey " deciphered" t h e t e xt s o f S c r i pt u r e . F r ee m a s o nr y de f i ne s t h e C a ba l a a s "the mystic or theosophical philosophy of the Jews... it is intimately related with the symbolic science of Freemasonry... It is employed a great deal in the high d egr ees , and wh ol e ri t ual s h ave be en co nst i t ut e d und er i t s principles, for which reason it deserves a place in any general treatise on Freemasonry" (2) The cabalists and their Brotherhood of the Rosicrucians connected the diverse sects, which were d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e m , a n d g a v e t h e m a c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r in their hostility or hatred to Catholicism. Many historians repeat that Luther made a visit to the Vatican and was disgusted by the luxury and i mmo r al i t y w hi c h he s aw t h er e. It i s al so a f act t h at he wa s indignant over the sale of indulgences, but this was not w h a t w a s f u n d a m en t al i n h i s p r o cl a m at i o n o f r ef o r m at i o n , for he did not call for morality, but rather established a whole different religion that would displace Catholicism. He denied dogmas and traditions. He was not - as it was claimed -a reformer of the conduct of the Papal Court. The Spanish historian Orestes Ferrara examined numer ous docu ment s of t he 16t h Cent ur y, and he st at es t hat false converts, accepted within the Vatican, s uch as Dr. B o net d e L at i s a nd Bi s ho p P edr o de Ar and a, ci r cu l at e d an d supported much of the literature, hostile to the Vatican, which circulated in Europe.(3) (2) Encyclopedia of Freemasonry. Albert Gallatin Mackey, 33rd Degree. San Antonio, Tx. 1925. (3) El Papa Borgia, Alejandro VI. Orestes Ferrara. Madrid, 1943. 9

But even if this activity promoted an exaggerated appreciation of conditions, it is an admitted fact that at the Papal Court there was licentious life under Pope Innoc ent VIII, (1484-1492), and more under his successor Alexander VI, (1492-1503). Under the next Pope, Julius II, (1503 -1513), things were somewhat improved, but much license came back into the Papal Court under Leo X, (1513 -1521). Then Adrian VI tried to moralize prelates and officials, but he onl y lived 20 months and was not able to complete his work. But quite apart from such immoral behaviour which caused a grave loss of prestige, what was decisive was the existence of an ancient movement against the dogma tic and traditional bases of the Church. The Cabalist John Reuchlin, famous author of a Hebrew grammar, aided in the publication of pamphlets against the Vatican, with the help o f theologist George Trismegistus and of Henry Cornelius Agrippa von Nottesheim, author of The Occult Philosophy. Reuchlin and his associates formed various secret groups in Paris, Germany, Italy and London, dating from 1510. The Masonic branch of the Rosicrucians co-ordinated the various sects, on the one hand, with the Cabalists on the other. Later they invited Luther to participate in the c a m p a i g n " a g a i n s t t h e m e r c a n t i l e a n d r a p a c i o u s R o m e o f the Popes". Luther was selected not as a theologian, but as a fiery orator, and he started by talking of "reforming" the Church, but he rapidly passed on to the creation of another church in 1525. He changed the Mass, the Communion, the hierarchy, confession, the cathechism etc. It was all prepared beforehand so that Luther's rebellion should have a continental response from groups which everywhere followed his lead. As time went by, many people of good faith affiliated themselves to the diverse Protestant branches, attracted by charitable and, humanistic aspects. It must be understood that these persons are not necessarily c onnected with the o c cu l t i s t g r o u p s o f t h e C a b a la .

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Religion, Economy, Politics. Three motives were taken up under one single a s p e ct , t h a t o f r e l ig i o u s 'reform.

W h i l e L u t he r w a s w i n n i n g t h o u s an d s o f f o l l o w er s i n Bohemia, Germany, Scandinavia, Italy and Spain, Calvin appeared on the scene and established a dictatorship in Geneva, fr om wher e Cal vi ni sm spr ead i nt o Fr ance, England, Scotland, the Netherlands and then even to Hungary and Poland. Both Luther and Calvin had in their favor the o p e r at i o n s o f a n i n t e r n a t i o n al or ga n i za t i o n w h i c h p r o vi de d a r esoundi ng echo t o t hei r pr eachi ng. The historian Jastrow, among others, says that the r e gi me e s t ab l i s h ed by C a l vi n i n G e ne va i n 15 3 6 , d i sp l a ye d " f or ms of t er r i bl e seve r i t y.. . Fr o m t he r e C al vi ni s m r e ach ed France, England, Scotland and the Netherlands and e x t e nd e d t o w a r d t h e e a s t t o P ol a n d a nd H u n ga r y. It d i d n o t tolerate Catholic bishops, priests, or governors".(4) Calvin gave to Protest antism its most i mplacable for m in the period between 1536 and 1564. His doctrine spoke of "predestination", according to which t he el ect of the Lor d are desti ned to sal vati on and the r e st t o et er nal d a mnat i on. T ho se wh o ar e " t h e el ect " can b e d i s t i n gu i s h e d b e c a u s e " w e a l t h i s t h e t a n gi b l e a n d p a l p a b l e sign of the blessing of the Lord". ( In thi s there was much "occult knowledge" of Cabalistic origin). It was in this way that the new religion had a terrible discriminatory meaning and an economic goal. Consequently, in the C alvinistic synod of 1552, Catholic teaching with regard to the "just price" and usury was abolished, and t hus the way was cleared so t hat "t he el ect of the Lord" could resort to astute dealings, which should identify them, through the accumulation of riche s and power , as t hose who were " predesti ned" . T his was "Mani fest

(4) Universal History. J. Jastrow

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Destiny", the old Jewish idea that the Messiah grants to his o wn the domi nion of the world. To construct this particular theology, they relied on t he Old Testament, interpreted by Hebrew scholars and Cabalists. Fo r "the elect", the tr aditio nal mo r al co nstraints are not valid. They turned to Leviticus 25:43 -45: " Thou shalt n o t rule (thy brother) with rigour... (but) the children of t h e strangers...shall be your bondmen for ever", and Deuteronomy 23:20: "Unto a stranger thou mayest lend upon u s u r y ; b u t u n t o t h y b r o t h e r t h o u s h a l l n o t l e n d u p o n usury". Consequently, this particular type of Protestan tism a d v a n ce d si m u l t a ne ou s l y f r o m t h e r el i gi ou s s ph e r e, t o t h e political and economic sphere. If "predestination" is divine will, then, from predestination one can derive the right to hegemony over everything else. And of course action against Catholicism is justified, since it is an •obstacle to such a doctrine. The historian Lombard says that for radical Protestantism the City of God as offered by St. Augustine, ceased to have validity, and it took the road of a new form of society dominated by money, the city of Gold. He adds that a c c o r d i n g t o W i l l i a m G u y C a r r , a u t h o r o f Pa w ns i n t he G am e (pg. 20), the B'nai B'rith of Paris acclaimed Calvin in 1936 as a Jew whose real name was Cauin or Cohen. Calvinistic Protestantism, when it passed over into England, moderated its form somewhat, but not its essence n o r its goals. Since its followers were people of strict customs, very pious, they were given the name also of "Puritans". The elite of Protestantism (with its constituent elements of religion, economics and politics) found very fertile ground in England, taking advantage of the development of machines and of industry. The famous sociologist Max Weber states that modern Capitalism has its origin in "the Protestant ethic", although it would be more exact to call modern Capitalism "super -capitalism."(5)

(5) General Economic History, Economics and Society. M ax W eb e r, 1 8 6 4 - 1 9 2 0

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The Counter-Reformation The peace of Westphalia was not the end of the long struggle between the two powerful forces.

Lutheranism and Calvinism advanced with such . strength that it seemed they would dominate all Europe with their movement for reform, which was tempting in the religious and very strong in the economic and political spheres. But in the meantime, almost without a plan and providentially, the Counter -Refor mation appeared on the scene. A Spanish soldier, Ifiigo Lopez de Recalde , was seriously wounded at the siege of Pamplona in 1512; though his legs were fractured and though he suffered two operations, he overcame his pain and decided to take up arms again for the recovery of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. However, when he perceived the inroads of Protestantism, he formed the Company of Jesus, with military discipline. He made his new order a religious militia. Lopez de Recalde, known today as St. Ignatius of Loyola, together with the theologians Laynez and Salmeron, directed the renovation of Catholicism until it r e ach ed t he Co unci l o f T r ent , 1 545 -1 5 63 , whi ch def i ned or clarified many points of Catholicism. Due to an accident in the royal successions, a member of the House of Austria became Emperor of Ger many and Spai n, that is to say Char les I of Spai n ( and V o f Germany). At nineteen years of age he took up the sceptre over his vast empire and reached Spain without havi n g yet l ear ned Spani sh. He i mmedi at el y suppor t ed wi t h t h e s w o r d t h e s t r u g g l e o f t h e C o u n t e r - R e f o r ma t i o n w h i c h the Company of Jesus had initiated in the religious sphere. The historian J.P. Oliveir a Martins says that what ma d e Char l es V a n emi n ent f i gur e i n hi st o r y i s t hat he was t h e h e a d o f a h e r o i c a n d C a t h o l i c S p a i n a n d n o t o n l y j u s t one more German emperor. "Surrounded by his statesmen and captains, and relying on the invincible peninsular infan try, arbiter of the treasures of the Indies, when he crossed Europe from

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one end to the other, speaking to each nation in its tongue, fighting against Francis of France and the Protestants of Germany, and against Suleiman, the com mander of the Turks who were invading Austria, Charles V was the authentic defender of the Christian world... almost as much a mo narch in the spiritual as in the te mpor al ". (6) The wave of a Catholicism of renewed faith spread from one end to the other of Europe. The work of Charles V, o n who se do minio ns " the sun ne ver se t" , wa s co ntinued with gr e a t e r c o nc e n t r a t i o n b y h i s s uc c e s s o r P h i l i p I I , t he most po wer ful e mperor of his a ge. Philip II, who ruled between 1555 and 1598, waged wa r against the French, the T urks (the Battle of Lepanto), the English (who defeated his Invincible Armada in 1588), a n d particularly against the rulers who upheld Protestantism. Hungary and Poland, who had a great number of Protestants, were reclaimed for Catholicism. In France, where Calvinism had begun to dominate, a Catholic party regained thousands of minds, and in Switzerland several cantons were recuperated. The struggle of the Counter-Reformation did not conclude until 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia which brought to an end the bloody Thirty Years' War. Many regions of Germany had been almost depopulated. People where fighting over the carcasses of dead horses for food. The historian Hendrick Van Loon says that of 18 million inhabitants in Central Europe, only 4 million survived. Another historian, Andre Maurois, says that the population o f Germany was reduced to one third after the battles between kingdo ms, duchies, principalities, and counties. It was a religious-political-economic struggle which was e s p e c i a l l y b l o o d y. ( 7 ) D u r i n g t h e C o u n t e r - R e f o r ma t i o n t h e r e wa s a g r e a t 'p o s i t i v e r e a c t i o n i n f a v o r o f t h e C h u r c h . E c c l e s i a s t i c discipline was re-established, education was encouraged,

(6 ) Historia de l a Civil izaciOn l berica. J.P. Oliveira Martins. (7) His tory o f Germ an y. And r e Maur o is (original name, E mile Herzog).

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the number of missions increased and important points of doctrine where defined. In t he pol i t i cal spher e, t he Count er -Ref or ma t i on was also victorious in parts of Germany, Austria and Poland. Naturally, the Peace of Westphalia was really rather a ki nd of ar mi stice, f or it did not mean the disappearance of t h e t w o gr e a t f o r ce s w hi c h h ad c o me i n t o c o n f l i ct w i t h t he Refor mation and the Count er -Refor mation. T he s truggle wo u l d c o n t i n u e , a p p l y i n g d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s a n d u n d e r different aspects.

In England, Protestantism declared that Spain was "the natural enemy".

The Endorsement to Mexico The "elite", with a moderate strategy, participated eminently in the creation of the great Power of North America.

When it established the principle of the free e x a m i n a t i o n o f S c r i p t u r e , P r o t e s t a n t i s m f a v o r e d t h e b i r t h of numer ous br anches o r sect s, and some o f t hem ha ve kept t hemsel ves st r i ct l y i n t he r eli gi ous spher e. T h i s s h o u l d b e kept clearly in mind to avoid confusion or f alse judgements. On the other hand, an "elite" retained its

expansi ve soci al pri nci pl es, t hat i s t o say: t o consi der it self as " t he c h o se n o f t he L o r d " , as a ga i n st t h ose " n o t ch o s en " , and predestined to damnation. From this derived, for the "elite", a kind of special legality of all combinations which might increase its political and economic power as a "visible sign of p r e d e s t i n a t i o n " . T h e va n gu a r d o f t h i s e l i t e b e ga n t o a r r i ve from across the Atlantic, on the northeastern coasts of the colonies of North America. In 1620, a group of Calvinist "Puritans" arrived in Massachussetts Bay and founded the c o l o n y o f N e w P l ym o u t h , f r o m w h e r e t hey e x p a n d e d i nt o a vast territory.

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Samuel Oppenheim says that the first organized gr o u p o f J e w i s h i m m i gr a n t s, u n d er t h e l ea d e r s h i p of A s s er Levy, arrived in 1654, in what is today New York. (8) Another historian of the same origin, Dr. Rudolf Glanz, says as early as the first half of the 18th century, Hebrew groups had already established their superior influence. "The first three presidents of Harvard College w e r e f a mo u s J e w i s h s c h o l a r s . D u r i n g mo r e t h a n 1 5 0 ye a r s , the opening ceremonies of that college were in fact a Hebrew prayer... The same situation prevailed at Yale and at King's College, now the Univeristy of Columbia". (9) Such i mmi gr ants, with br oad exper ience in pol iti cal and religious struggles, brought over to North America their well-prepared leaders to form esoteric Masonic B r ot her hoo ds . In t hat vast a nd we al t h y t er r i t or y, f r e e f r o m any coercive force, they rose speedily in finance. Haym Solomon, Robert Morr is, t he Cohens and the Mi ns lent t heir economic support to George Washington 's war and then obtained a license to open a "Bank of the United States" (with eight branches), and privileges which made it possible to engage in ingenious speculations. P r e s i d e n t J e f f e r s o n n a me d A l b e r t G a l l a t i n , r e c e n t l y ar r i ved f r om Gene va, as Secr et ar y of t he T r easur y, and t hi s was again a blessing for the "elite". Economi c i nfl uence , easil y fl owed over int o politi cal influence, for it subsidized electoral campaigns so that cer t ai n candi dat es coul d r each posi ti ons in t he Congr ess, i n the Supreme Court or in the Governorships. The three pre -fabricated crises of 1837, 1869 and 1874 r u i n e d m i l l i o n s o f c i t i ze n s , b u t t h e y e n r i c h e d , f a b u l o u s l y, hundreds of fami lies of "t he chosen" . The concessions to build railroads were granted to J a y G o u l d , D a n i e l Dr e w , J a me s F i s k, C o r n e l i u s V a n de r bi l t and others. There were huge speculations. The wealthy family of eight brothers Seligman furnished funds for Lincoln's struggle during the Civil War, and was able to obtain a bank charter. The bank (8) History of the Jews in America. Samuel Oppenheim,

New York. ( 9) T resc ie n tos A n os de V id a y Ac ti v id ad e s J u di as e n l os EE.UU. Dr. Rudolf Glanz.Tribuna Israelita. Mexico,Junio 1954.

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s p e e di l y l e nt i t s a s si s t a nc e t o t h e p r es i den t i a l c a mp a i gn o f G r a n t , a n e m i n e n t M a s o n , a n d t h e e l d e r o f t h e S e l i g m a n s was named Secretary of the Treasury. At this ti me, 1875, there wer e already 10,000 Lodges operating in the United States, among which the most influential was the Independent Order of the Sons of the Covenant (the B'nai B'rith which was made up almost exclusively of "the chosen"). The "trusts" flourished. John D. Rockefeller in oil; Daniel and Simon Guggenheim in copper; Mellon in aluminum, etc. John Pierpont Morgan created the steel trust and t h e n he s et u p o ne of t h e mo s t po w e r f u l b a n ki n g h o u s e s i n the world. Abraham Kuhn, already immensly wealthy, associated successively with Solomon Loeb, Jacob Schiff and P a u l W ar b u r g, an d hi s ba n ki n g h o u s e c o nt r ol l e d mo r e t h an 30% of the US banking system. Emile Herzog, also known as Andre Maurois of the French Academy of Sciences, called many of these magnat es "pirates of fi nance" . He says t hat wit h the support of legislators who owed them favors, they could lower costs, increase prices and obtain enormous profits from stock e x c h a n ge m a n e u ve r s w i t h e a r n i n gs o f u p t o 8 0 0 % i n r a p i d transactions. "The conquerors of the 19th Century" he adds, "showed very few s cruples, and accumulated superhuman fortunes through inhuman means; they tr eated the masses who served them as mere cannon -fodder. It is an era of great indi viduals, monstrously egotistic and mar velousl y efficient... the system of indirect elections made it easier, to a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , t h a t t h o s e w h o h a d e n t e r e d t h e c l u b o f r ich men shoul d sl i p i nt o t he Senat e, and o ver t hese, publ i c o pi ni on was i nca pabl e o f exer t i n g a n y i nf l u enc e" . ( 10) But all this was very natural according to their own ethic of "the chosen of the Lord", though it should be said that in the New World they did not present those impopular characteristics of exalted violence which had been displayed in Geneva. On the contrary they took on d e mo c r a t i c f o r m s , a n d ma n y s u p e r m a gn a t e s h u s h e d u p t h e ( 10) H i s t o r y o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . Andr e Ma ur oi s 17

scandal of their speculations through donations to universities and other altruistic foundations. But they retained their essence. (When exa mined in its mo st ge neral aspects, the age of

t h e R ef o r m at i o n w as e s s e nt i a l l y , a n o ve l po w e r - pl a y by t h e Cabalists. Although they did not obtain everything they wished, due to the Counter -Reformation, from there on the y used Calvinism and the proliferation .of Masonic lodges to gain political and economic influence, and later, in the last c e n t u r y, t h e y c r e a t e d M a r x i s m a s a n o t he r n e w i n s t r u me n t of conquest). Now it is clear that the " elite", which has been active since the birth of the United States, brought with it from Europe an implacable enmity against Spain and against the Catholic religion; and since on this continent Mexico represented both of these entities, Mexico became the object of an action which has always operated in the decisive moments of our history.

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CHAPTER 2 National Memory The past explains the present, and the future is built on the present.

T o s up pos e t hat t he hi st or y of M exi c o i s e xcl u si vel y the record of our own strengths and of our own mistakes, would be as much as to suppose that we are an island in outer space, sovereign and lonely, impervious to all e xt er nal i nf l u ence . On t he ot her ha nd, t o see ou r hi st or y as a n interaction of forces, where the external force is f r e qu e nt l y t h e mo r e po w e r f ul , . ma y s e e m d i s a gr e ea b l e , b ut it is more realistic. Such an examination helps us to understand better several national events and to clarify the limits of our acti on and of our r esponsibilit y. It is a vital function of histor y to enter int o the most p r of o un d c aus es of i t s ha ppe ni n g, an d t o at t ai n t hi s i t mu st overt hr ow f all aci es or pseudo -histor ic dogmas. N ot wi t hst a ndi n g t hat hi st or y i s on l y t he pa st , on t he past we explain the present and the future has its foundations upon the present. T he inf lue nce tof the p as t conti nues to ac t one way or ano ther. A nati on wit h a deformed history is a nation with a sick memory. As Fernandez Campo says, "Amnesia, when it paralyzes the me mo r y o f a pe r so n , e ve n t h o u gh t he me m o r y i s o nl y w h a t i s p a s t , m o d i f i e s h i s p r e s e n t a n d h i s f u t u r e . I n t h e s a m e way, t o wi t hdr aw and al t er t he essent i al par t s of t he hi st or y of a nati on i s not onl y a vai n f icti on of "t hat which was" but a l s o a d e c i s i v e i n f l u e n c e o n t h a t w h i c h i s , a n d o n t h a t which will be". (1) With this in mind, with the object of understanding t h at o ur ch equ er ed hi st or y has n ot d epe nde d ex cl usi vel y on ourselves, let us review several outstanding events in the last 177 years of the life of Mexico. (1) Identidad Nacional. Felix Fernandez Campo, 1987.

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We Wer e Told: "N o Em pir e!" Mexico was born as an empire, the i nhe ri tan ce of t h e A z te c e m p i r e a n d of the Spanish empire. For very natural reasons Spain could not retain indefinitely its , vast colonies in the New World, but the process of independence was also pushed forward by the i n t e r n a t i o n a l e n e mi e s o f S p a i n a s a n a c t o f v e n g e a n c e a n d in the pursuit of booty. Well-read historians such as Mr. Richard E. Chism and the Mexican Antonio Gibaja y Patron furnish us with much data on the foreign agents who visited the New Spain and other Spanish colonies at the beginning of the past century to promote independence, and who came from the United States, from England and from France. Luis de Onis, plenipotentiary minister of Spain in North America also reported these activities to the Crown. Specifically, Mr. Chism says that there was contact with Don Miguel Hidalgo , the father of Mexican independence, since 1806. Of course such agents were not working out of altruism but with the object of booty for their cause. (2) We do not doubt the good intentions of Hidalgo, but o f course, he lacked political experience and was not a military leader. The strange idea took hold in his good fa ith that he should oppose what was Indian to what was Spanish. This gave rise to a hatred incapable of distinguishing between "Gachupines", as pure Spaniards were called, and "Criollos" or "Mestizos", those of mixed Spanish and Indian descent. This was the cause of tremendous massacres in Guanajuato, Valladolid, and Guadalajara when independence began in 1810, and this blind hatred also gave rise to the destruction of aqueducts, large haciendas, mills, mines and shops. Hidalgo was able to bring together some 80,000 Indians. He soon lost control, and his insurrection (2) A Contribution to the Masonic History of Mexico. Richard E. Chism.

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degenerated into pillage and desertion. Finally, his uprising ended in total failure at the battle of Calderon, January 17, 1811, having begun only four months earlier. It is a fact recognized by many that the cause of the failure was that he b ased independence o n racial struggle. Many sympathizers of the movement for independence a b s t a i n e d f r o m f o l l o w i n g h i m w h e n t h e y s a w t h e a b s u r d i t y of his tactic. It seems that Hidalgo had fallen into the trap of such a strategy under so mebody's advice, and this was the reason t h a t i n d e p e n d e n c e w a s d e l a y e d 1 0 y e a r s , a n d t h a t t h e r e we r e losses of 1,000 million pesos, that is to say, 40 times the a nnua l budget of that time, which wa s 25 million pesos. It was a different story when General A gustin de Iturbide proclaimed a Plan of Independence in Iguala on Febuary 24, 1821. This plan defined the Mexican nationality a s originating in the combination of two races: the aboriginal Indians and the Spanish. According to this generous and realistic definition, all the inhabitants of Mexico had equal rights, whether they were Indians, of mixed blood; or Spaniards. This plan also specified "the supremacy of the Catholic religion". This independence, which Iturbide achieved in only 18 mo nths-with the help of Guerrero -was based on an idea of harmony and unity. Iturbide gave to the political institutions of the country the form of an empire, .a system which corresponded with the inheri tance of the Aztec empire and of t h e S p a n i s h e m p i r e . T h e . M e x i c a n C o n g r e s s a p p r o v e d t h i s on May 20, 1822. Ho wever, the United States withhel d the recognition of the government of Iturbide and sent Joel Roberts Poinsett to Mexico. Joel Roberts Poinsett was a g r e a t - grandson of the Jewish Calvinists Pierre Poinsett and Sarah Fouchereau, who in 1685 had emigrated from France to t h e United States. Joel Roberts Poinsett had contacts with the Scottish Rite Lodges which had been at work here since the final days of t he Spa nish r ule, and besides he bro ught " li ght s" for the York Rite. In Mexico City he had an interview with Iturbide a n d s u g g e s t e d t o h i m t h a t h e a d o p t a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l syste m similar to that of the United States.

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This proposal carried a great deal of deep meaning because the Mexican Empire could prolong itself indefinitely and come to be the political head of a great part of Lat in A mer ic a, w her e on t h e ot h er h an d a r e p u bl ic an and federal system, through the change of government ev er y f o ur y ear s, ga v e t o int er n at i o na l Fr e e ma s onr y t h e opportunity of supporting the group which it chose, and in this manner it could increase its infiltration. However, Iturbide replied courteously, t hat Mexico was different from the United States, and he rejected the proposal. In the presence of some officials of Iturbide such as Juan Francisco Ascarate, Poinsett let slip an insinuation t hat t h er e mi ght b e a r e c og nit i o n if Me x ic o ce d e d t o t h e United States its northern territories, which, he said, were really more of a burden than an advantage to us. Ascarate coldly replied that Mexico would not cede one inch of territory.(3) Iturbide was a career officer, a good organizer and comm ander of t r oop s, but in t he cr isis of t he bir t h of an empire and in the face of f or eign pr essure, he lacked the political wisdom to skirt serious dangers. To begin with, he believed in the free play of the electoral forces as an integrator of a Congress, and had not formed a team who would be loyal to him. The secret lodges infiltrated and acted within this power vacuum. The Masonic lodges were unknown to the immense majority of the new directing class of the nation. The Scottish and York Rites united for a brief period; they provoked disorders and overthrew Iturbide, only ten months after his coronation. Just as Poinsett had suggested, the Venerable Freemason Miguel Ramos Arizpe, took the U.S. Constitution as his blueprint, and upon it he drew up the Mexican Constitution of 1824, and the country adopted the new name of United Mexican States.

(3) Early Diplomatic Relations Between the U.S. and Mexico. W.R. Manning.

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