Sejarah Farmasi | Pharmacy | Pharmacist

HISTORY OF PHARMACY

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Sriwidodo, 2014

At the Begining... Ancient man learned from instinct, from observation of birds and beasts. Cool water, a leaf, dirt, or mud was his first soothing application. By trial, he learned which served him best. Eventually, he applied his know-ledge for the benefit of others.

Despite their crude methods, many of today's medicines spring from sources as simple and elementary as those which were within reach of early man.

Babylon, jewel of ancient Mesopotamia, often called the cradle of civilization, provides the earliest known record of practice of the art of the apothecary. Practitioners of healing of this era (about 2600 B.C.) were priest, pharmacist and physician, all in one.

Medical texts on clay tablets record first the symptoms of illness, the prescription and directions for compounding, then an invocation to the gods. Ancient Babylonian methods find counterpart in today's modern pharmaceutical, medical, and spiritual care of the sick.

Chinese Pharmacy, according to legend, stems from Shen Nung (about 2000 B.C.), emperor who sought out and investigated the medicinal value of several hundred herbs. He reputed to have tested many of them on himself, and to have written the first Pen T-Sao, or native herbal, recording 365 drugs.

Still worshiped by native Chinese drug guilds as their patron god, Shen Nung conceivably examined many herbs, barks, and roots brought in from the fields, swamps, and woods that are still recognized in Pharmacy today.

Though Egyptian medicine dates from about 2900 B.C., best known and most important pharmaceutical record is the "Papyrus Ebers" (1500 B.C.), a collection of 800 prescriptions, mentioning 700 drugs. Pharmacy in ancient Egypt was conducted by two or more echelons: gatherers and preparers of drugs, and "chiefs of fabrication," or head pharmacists. They are thought to have worked in the "House of Life." In a setting such as this, the "Papyrus Ebers" might have been dictated to a scribe by a head pharmacist as he directed compounding activities in the drug room.

THE EBERS PAPYRUS IN HIERATIC SCRIPT. 1530 B.C. Remedy to clear out the body and to get rid of the excrement in the body of a person. Berries of the castor-oil tree Chew and swallow down with beer in order to clear out all that is in the body.

Perfume and Cosmetics

Gathering lilies for their perfume.

Source: Singer et al., 1954, Fig. 189.

Contemporary picture of students harvesting peaches.

Source: R. Hayden photo.

Perfume and Cosmetics

Expressing oil of lily. Source: Singer et al., 1954.

Compounding Ointments and Perfumes (Thebes 1500 BCE)

Assistants crush dried herbs with pestle and mortar (1,2,3,4). The crushed herbs are added to a bowl of molten fat, stirred (5) and shaped into balls upon cooling (6). Special jars probably containing spiced wine, a useful solvent because of its alcohol content is siphoned and filtered into a bowl (7). At extreme left an assistant shapes a piece of wood beneath a bowl heaped with unguents (8). Source: Singer et al., 1954.

Plant Exploration (ca 2000 BCE)

An epistle in which the Egyptian scribe Sinuhe penned the following description about Yaa, the name for Israel.

It was a goodly land called Yaa Figs were in it and grapes, and its wine was more abundant than its water. Plentiful was its honey, many were its olives; all manner of fruits were upon its trees. Source: Goor and Nurock, 1968.

Plant Exploration

Ships of Queen Hatshepsut’s fleet landing at Punt (northeastern coast of Africa) with exotic merchandise for Egypt. Deir el-Bahri, ca. 1500 BCE. Note tame baboons, marine character of fish, the carting and storage of incense plants. Source: Singer et al., 1954.

An Early Botanical Collection.

Strange plants and seeds brought back from Syria by Thothmes II, as they were carved on the walls of the temple of Karnak, Egypt, ca. 1450 BCE.

Source: Singer et al., 1954.

~ 500 B.C. TERRA SIGILLATA – AN EARLY ‘TRADEMARK’ Man learned early of the

prestigious advantage of trademarks as a means of identification of source and of gaining customers' confidence. One of the first therapeutic agents to bear such a mark was Terra Sigillata (Sealed Earth), a clay tablet originating on the Mediterranean island of Lemnos before 500 B.C. One day each year clay was dug from a pit on a Lemnian hillside in the presence of governmental and religious dignitaries. Washed, refined, rolled to a mass of proper thickness, the clay was formed into pastilles and impressed with an official seal by priestesses, then sun-dried. The tablets were then widely distributed commercially.

~ 300 B.C. THEOPHRASTUS – FATHER OF BOTANY Theophrastus (about 300 B.C.), among the greatest early Greek philosophers and natural scientists, is called the "father of botany." His observations and writings dealing with the medical qualities and peculiarities of herbs are unusually accurate, even in the light of present knowledge. He lectured to groups of students who walked about with him, learning of nature by observing her treasurers at firsthand. In his hands he holds a branch of belladonna. Behind him are pomegranate blooms, senna, and manuscript scrolls. Slabs of ivory, coated with colored beeswax, served the students as "slates." Writing was cut into the surface with a stylus.

~ 100 B.C. MITHRIDATES – ROYAL TOXICOLOGIST Mithridates VI, King of Pontus (about 100 B.C.), though he battled Rome for a lifetime, found time to make not only the art of poisoning, but also the art of preventing and counteracting poisoning, subjects of intensive study.

Unhesitatingly, he used himself as well as his prisoners as "guinea pigs" on which to test poisons and antidotes. Behind him are rhizotomists, offering fresh, flowering aconite, ginger, and gentian. At lower right is a crater - a two-piece forerunner of the champagne bucket. His famed formula of alleged panantidotal powers, "Mithridatum," was popular for over a thousand years.

~ 100 A.D. DIOSCORIDES – A SCIENTIST LOOKS AT DRUGS In the evolution of all successful and enduring systems of knowledge there comes a time when the observations of many men, or the intensive studies of one, transcend from the level of trade or vocation to that of a science. Pedanios Dioscorides (first century A.D.), contributed mightily to such a transition in Pharmacy. In order to study materia medica, Dioscorides accompanied the Roman armies throughout the known world. He recorded what he observed, promulgated excellent rules for collection of drugs, their storage and use. His texts were considered basic science as late as the sixteenth century.

Genealogy of Dioscoridian texts (after Singer)

Images from Dioscorides.

Cowpea

Images from Dioscorides.

Ferula

The preparation of an aromatic wine to treat coughs; from an Arabic translation of Treatise on Medicine by Dioscorides. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)

130 – 200 A.D. GALEN – EXPERIMENTER IN DRUG COMPOUNDING Of the men of ancient times whose names are known and revered among both the professions of Pharmacy and Medicine, Galen, undoubtedly, is the foremost. Galen (130-200 A.D.) practiced and taught both Pharmacy and Medicine in Rome. Galens principles of preparing and compounding medicines ruled in the Western world for 1,500 years; and his name still is associated with that class of pharmaceuticals compounded by mechanical means - galenicals. He was the originator of the formula for a cold cream, essentially similar to that known today. Many procedures Galen originated have their counterparts in today's modern compounding laboratories.

This miniature in an Arabic manuscript of the early 13th century depicts the preparation of drugs. A liquid remedy is being mixed over a fire in the open air, where flora and fauna symbolize the pharmaceutical bounty of nature. The bearded figure (right) holds out an ornate ceramic drug container. Manuscript was based on Galen’s treatise concerning electuaries (lozenges).

~ 3RD CENTURY A.D. DAMIAN AND COSMAS – Twinship of SAINTS the health PHARMACY’S PATRON professions, Pharmacy and Medicine, is nowhere more strikingly portrayed than by Damian, the apothecary, and Cosmas, the physician. Twin brothers of Arabian descent, and devout Christians, they offered the solace of religion as well as the benefit of their knowledge to the sick who visited them. Their twin careers were cut short in the year 303 by martyrdom. For centuries their tomb in the Syrian city of Cyprus was a shrine. Churches were built in their honor in Rome and other cities. After canonization, they became the patron saints of Pharmacy and Medicine, and many miracles were attributed to them.

5TH – 12TH CENTURY A.D. MONASTIC PHARMACY During the Middle Ages remnants of the Western knowledge of Pharmacy and Medicine were preserved in the monasteries (fifth to twelfth centuries). These scientists are known to have been taught in the cloisters as early as the seventh century. Manuscripts from many islands were translated or copied for monastery libraries. The monks gathered herbs and simples in the field, or raised them in their own herb gardens. These they prepared according to the art of the apothecary for the benefit of the sick and injured. Gardens such as these still may be found in monasteries in many countries.

~ 8TH CENTURY A.D. THE FIRST APOTHECARY SHOPS The Arabs separated the arts of apothecary and physician, establishing in Bagdad late in the eighth century the first privately owned drug stores. They preserved much of the Greco-Roman wisdom, added to it, developing with the aid of their natural resources syrups, confections, conserves, distilled waters and alcoholic liquids.

The apothecary is examining logs of sandalwood offered by a traveling merchant, while children indulge their taste for sweets with stalks of sugar cane. When the Moslems swept across Africa, Spain and southern France, they carried with them a new pattern of Pharmacy which western Europe soon assimilated.

980 – 1037 A.D. IBN SINA – THE PERSIAN ‘GALEN’ Among the brilliant contributors to the sciences of Pharmacy and Medicine during the Arabian era was one genius who seems to stand for his time - the Persian, Ibn Sina (about 980-1037 A.D.), called Avicenna by the Western world.

Pharmacist, poet, physician, philosopher and diplomat, Avicenna was an intellectual giant, a favorite of Persian princes and rulers. He wrote in Arabic, often while secluded in the home of an apothecary friend. His pharmaceutical teachings were accepted as authority in the West until the 17th century; and still are dominant influences in the Orient.

1240 A.D. SEPARATION OF PHARMACY AND MEDICINE In European countries exposed to Arabian influence, public pharmacies began to appear in the 11th century. However, it was not until about 1240 A.D. that, in Sicily and southern Italy, Pharmacy was separated from Medicine. Frederick II of Hohenstaufen, who was Emperor of Germany as well as King of Sicily, was a living link between Oriental and Occidental worlds. At his palace in Palermo, he presented subject Pharmacists with the first European edict completely separating their responsibilities from those of Medicine, and prescribing regulations for their professional practice.

1498 A.D. THE FIRST OFFICIAL PHARMACOPOEIA The idea of a pharmacopoeia with official status, to be followed by all apothecaries, originated in Florence. The Nuovo Receptario, originally written in Italian, was published and became the legal standard for the citystate in 1498.

It was the result of collaboration of the Guild of Apothecaries and the Medical Society one of the earliest manifestations of constructive interprofessional relations. The professional groups received official advice and guidance from the powerful Dominican monk, Savonarola, (seated, foreground) who, at the time, was the political leader in Florence.

1617 A.D. THE SOCIETY OF APOTHECARIES OF LONDON Trade in drugs and spices was lucrative in the Middle Ages. In the British Isles, it was monopolized by the Guild of Grocers, which had jurisdiction over the apothecaries. After years of effort, the apothecaries found allies among court physicians. Upon persuasion by the philosopher-politician, Francis Bacon, King James I granted a charter in 1617 which formed a separate company known as the "Master, Wardens and Society of the Art and Mystery of the Apothecaries of the City of London" over vigorous protests of the grocers. This was the first organization of pharmacists in the Anglo-Saxon world.

1605 ~ 1640’S LOIUS HEBERT - CANADA Young Parisian Apothecary Louis Hébert answered the call of the New World in 1605, when he helped de Monts and Champlain build New France's first settlement, the Habitation, at Port Royal (Nova Scotia, Canada). Hébert looked after the health of the pioneers, cultivated native drug plants, and supervised the gardens. At the waterfront, he examined specimens of drug plants offered by Micmac Indians. These included Arum, (Jack-in-the-Pulpit), Eupatorium (Boneset), Verbascum (Mullein), and Hydrastis (Golden Seal). When the Habitation was destroyed by the English in 1613, he returned to his Parisian apothecary shop. The lure of Canada was strong, however, and in 1617, he and the family returned with Champlain to Quebec, where Hébert's "green thumb" gained him lasting fame as the first successful farmer in what is now Canada.

~ 1640 JOHN WINTROP - BOSTON Many Europeans "of quality and wealth, particularly those who were nonconformists in religion" were attracted to the possibilities of the American Colonies. From Britain came John Winthrop, first Governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony and founder of Boston.

Governor Winthrop, unable to induce professionals to the Colony, sought advice from English apothecaries and physicians, and added to his small store of imported drugs those derived from plants native to New England. In his home (about 1640), he made available as best he could the "art and mystery" of the apothecary for his citizens.

1729 THE MARSHALL APOTHECARY Christopher Marshall, an Irish immigrant, established his apothecary shop in Philadelphia in 1729. During 96 years, this pioneer pharmaceutical enterprise became a leading retail store, nucleus of large-scale chemical manufacturing; a "practical" training school for pharmacists; an important supply depot during the Revolution; and finally, it was managed by granddaughter Elizabeth, America's first woman pharmacist.

Christopher earned the title of "The fighting Quaker" during the Revolution; his sons, Charles and Christopher, Jr., (shown as youths with their father, about 1754) earned individual fame and carried on his fine traditions.

1752 FIRST HOSPITAL PHARMACY Colonial America's first hospital (Pennsylvania) was established in Philadelphia in 1751; the first Hospital Pharmacy began operations there in 1752. First Hospital Pharmacist was Jonathan Roberts.

It was his successor, John Morgan, whose practice as a hospital pharmacist (1755-56), and whose impact upon Pharmacy and Medicine influenced changes that were to become of importance to the development of professional pharmacy in North America. First as pharmacist, later as physician, he advocated prescription writing and championed independent practice of two professions.

1742 - 1786 CARL WILHELM SCHEELE During his few short years, Carl Wilhelm Scheele gave to the world discoveries that have brought its people incalculable advantages. Being sometimes called the Founder of Organic Chemistry, he never forgot that he was, first of all, a pharmacist. Encouraged by enlightened preceptors, all of his discoveries were made in the Swedish pharmacists in which he worked, as apprentice, as clerk, and finally as owner, in Köping. He began in a corner of the stock room of Unicorn Apothecary in Gothenburg. With rare genius, he made thousands of experiments, discovered oxygen, chlorine, prussic acid, tartaric acid, tungsten, molybdenum, glycerin, nitroglycerin, and countless other organic compounds that enter into today's daily life, industry, health, and comfort.

1777 ANDREW CRAIGIE – FIRST APOTHECARY GENERAL First man to hold the rank of a commissioned pharmaceutical officer in an American army was the Bostonian apothecary, Andrew Craigie. First appointed commissary of medical stores by Massachusetts' Committee of Safety, April 30, 1775, he was present at the Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775, and probably assisted in taking care of the sick and wounded there in a makeshift station back of the lines. When Congress reorganized the Medical Department of the Army in 1777, Craigie became the first Apothecary General. He duties included procurement, storage, manufacture, and distribution of the Army's drug requirements. He also developed an early wholesaling and manufacturing business.

1816 SERTÜRNER (1783 – 1841) – FIRST ALKALOID CHEMIST Swedish pharmacist Scheele paved the way for isolating organic plant acids; but it remained for a young German apothecary, Friedrich Wilhelm Adam Sertürner, to give the world opium's chief narcotic principle, morphine; and to recognize and prove the importance of a new class of organic substances: alkaloids. His first announcements challenged, Sertürner in 1816 conducted a new series of bold, startling experiments in his apothecary shop in Einbeck, including a series of physiologic tests on himself and three young friends. Recognition and fame followed. Relocating in an apothecary shop in Hameln, Sertürner continued organic chemical experimentation and discovery throughout his life.

1820 CAVENTOU, PELLETIER AND QUININE Taking their cue from Sertürner's alkaloidal experiments, two French pharmacists, Pierre-Joseph Pelletier and Joseph-Bienaimé Caventou, isolated emetine from ipecacuanha in 1817; strychnine and brucine from nux vomica in 1818; then, in their laboratory in the back of a Parisian apothecary shop, they tackled the problem that had baffled scientists for decades - wresting the secrets of the Peruvian barks that were so useful against malaria. In 1820 Caventou and Pelletier announced the methods for separation of quinine and cinchonine from the cinchona barks; prepared pure salts, had them tested clinically, and set up manufacturing facilities. Many other discoveries came from their pharmacy-laboratory; high honors were accorded them.

13 MARCH 1821 FIRST PHARMACEUTICAL ORGANISATION Faced with two major threats; deterioration of the practice of pharmacy, and a discriminatory classification by the University of Pennsylvania medical faculty, the pharmacists of Philadelphia held a tempestuous protest meeting in Carpenters' Hall, February 23, 1821. At a second meeting, March 13, the pharmacists voted formation of an association, which became The Philadelphia College of Pharmacy; a school of pharmacy; and a selfpolicing board. Sixty-eight pharmacists signed the Constitution of the first pharmaceutical association in the United States; American Pharmacy's first educational institution, bearing the same name, opened November 9.

~ 1820 – 1900 SHAKERS AND MEDICAL HERBS First U.S. industry in medicinal herbs was carried on by the United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing, commonly known as the Shakers. Begun about 1820, and commercially important by 1830, the medicinal herb industry grew, hit its peak in the 1860's, then waned at the close of the century.

The Shakers gathered or cultivated some 200 varieties of medicinal herbs; dried, chopped, and pressed them into "bricks"; wrapped, labeled, and sold them to pharmacists and physicians world-wide. Tons of solid and fluid extracts also were produced. The Shaker label was recognized for reliability and quality for more than a century.

6-8 OCTOBER 1852 AMERICAN PHARMACEUTICAL ASSOCIATION Need for better communication among pharmacists; standards for education and apprenticeship; and quality control of imported drugs, led to calling of a convention of representative pharmacists in the Hall of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, October 6 to 8, 1852.

Under leadership of its first President, Daniel B. Smith, and first Secretary, William Procter, Jr., the twenty delegates launched The American Pharmaceutical Association; mapped its objectives; and opened membership to "All pharmaceutists and druggists" of good character who subscribed to its Constitution and to its Code of Ethics. The Association continues to serve Pharmacy today.

21-24 AUGUST 1867 EUROPEAN VS AMERICAN PHARMACY Over the years, no real discord had existed between representatives of European and American Pharmacy so far as ethical and scientific aims are concerned. But when the groups met for the first time, at the Second International Congress of Pharmacy in Paris, France, August 21 to 24, 1867, there was a great divergence of opinion on the subject of compulsory limitation of pharmacies. William Procter, Jr., leading the delegates of The American Pharmaceutical Association, told the international body that "Public opinion is in America a forceful agent of reform," and that, in his country, "there is not the slightest obstacle toward a multiplication of drug stores save that a lack of success." His declaration vividly documented the American Way of Pharmacy.

~ 1815 – 1874 WILLIAM PROCTER – THE FATHER OF AMERICAN PHARMACY Rarely has a titular distinction been so deserved. William Procter, Jr., graduated from The Philadelphia College of Pharmacy in 1837; operated a retail pharmacy; served the College as Professor of Pharmacy for 20 years; was a leader in founding The American Pharmaceutical Association.

He served that organization as its first secretary; later, as its president; served 30 years on the U.S.P. Revision Committee; was for 22 years Editor of the American Journal of Pharmacy. In 1869, though retired, Procter continued to edit the Journal in a small publication office located beside the College's Tenth Street building. From retirement he returned to P.C.P.'s chair of Pharmacy in1872; literally died "in the harness," in 1874.

1868 PHARMACEUTICAL EDUCATION When Dr. Albert B. Prescott launched the pharmacy course at the University of Michigan in 1868, critical attention was aroused because he abandoned the traditional requirement of pregraduation apprenticeship. At the 1871 convention of the American Pharmaceutical Association, he was denied credentials and ostracized.

However, the Michigan course pioneered other major changes: laboratory pharmacy, a definite curriculum that included basic sciences, and a program that demanded students' full-time attention. During the next thirty years, Dr. Prescott had the satisfaction of seeing his once revolutionary innovations generally adopted by pharmaceutical faculties.

1877 A NEW PHARMACOPOEIA The first "United States Pharmacopoeia" (1820) was the work of the medical profession. It was the first book of drug standards from a professional source to have achieved a nation's acceptance. In 1877, the "U.S.P." was in danger of dissolution due to the lack of interest of the medical profession. Dr. Edward R. Squibb, manufacturing pharmacist as well as physician, took the problem to The American Pharmaceutical Association convention. Pharmacists formed a "Committee on Revision" chairmanned by hospital pharmacist Charles Rice, assisted by pharmacisteducator Joseph P. Remington, and by Dr. Squibb, their indefatigable collaborator. The "U.S. Pharmacopoeia" surged to new importance.

1879 STANDARDIZATION OF PHARMACEUTICALS Despite the professional skill and integrity of 19th-century pharmacists, seldom did two preparations of vegetable drugs have the same strength, even though prepared by identical processes. Plant drugs varied widely in active alkaloidal and glucosidal content. The first answer to this problem came when Parke, Davis & Company introduced standardized "Liquor Ergotae Purificatus" in 1879. Dr. Albert Brown Lyons, as the firm's Chief Chemist, further developed methods of alkaloidal assay. Messrs. Parke and Davis recognized the value of his work, and in 1883, announced a list of twenty standardized "normal liquids." Parke-Davis also pioneered in developing pharmacologic and physiologic standards for pharmaceuticals.

1884 SECRETS OF THE JUNGLE Expeditions in search of new medicinal plants probably are as old as Pharmacy. Scientific adventurers, such as Henry Hurd Rusby (1855-1940), opened vast new horizons for the advancement of Pharmacy and Medicine, late in the nineteenth century.

Sent by Parke, Davis & Company in 1884 to Peru for supplies of coca leaves, Dr. Rusby crossed the Andes and journeyed down the Amazon to the Atlantic amid incredible hardships. He returned with 45,000 botanical specimens. Among them were many new drug plants, including cocillana bark, pharmaceutical preparations of which are still important to Medicine. Dr. Rusby later became Dean of the College of Pharmacy of Columbia University.

1831 – 1877 STANISLAS LIMOUSIN - INVENTOR One of those men singularly gifted in combining scientific knowledge with technical skill and with inventive genius was the french retail pharmacist, Stanislas Limousin (1831-1887).

Among the many devices which he introduced to Pharmacy and Medicine were the medicine dropper; the system of coloring poisons (such as corrosive sublimate); and wafer cachets (which found favor prior to mass production of the gelatin capsule). His greatest contributions, however, were the development and perfection of apparatus for the inhalation and therapeutic administration of oxygen; and invention of glass ampoules that could be sealed and sterilized for preservation of solutions for hypodermic use.

~ 1895 THE ERA OF BIOLOGICALS When, in 1894, Behring and Roux announced the effectiveness of diphtheria antitoxin, pharmaceutical scientists both in Europe and in the United States rushed to put the new discovery into production. Parke, Davis & Company was among the pioneers. The serum became available in 1895, and lives of thousands of children were saved. Inoculation of horses with diphtheria toxin was the first step of many in producing antitoxin. In 1903, Parke-Davis received U.S. Biological License No. 1. New, improved biological products have continued to become available, climaxed in 1955 by poliomyelitis vaccine.

EARLY 20TH CENTURY DEVELOPMENT OF CHEMOTHERAPY One of the successful researchers in the development of new chemical compounds specifically created to fight disease-causing organisms in the body was the French pharmacist, Ernest Francois Auguste Fourneau (1872-1949), who for 30 years headed chemical laboratories in the world-renowned Institut Pasteur, in Paris. His early work with bismuth and arsenic compounds advanced the treatment of syphilis. He broke the German secret of a drug specific for sleeping sickness; paved the way for the lifesaving sulfonamide compounds; and from his laboratories came the first group of chemicals having recognized antihistaminic properties. His work led other investigators to broad fields of chemotherapeutic research.

1930’S PHARMACEUTICAL RESEARCH Research in some form has gone hand in hand with the development of Pharmacy through the ages. However, it was the chemical synthesis of antipyrine in 1883 that gave impetus and inspiration for intensive search for therapeutically useful compounds. Begun by the Germans, who dominate the field until World War I, the lead in pharmaceutical research passed thereafter to the United States.

Research in Pharmacy came into its own in the late 1930's and early 1940's; has grown steadily since, supported by pharmaceutical manufactures, universities, and government. Today it uses techniques and trained personnel from every branch of science in the unending search for new life-saving and life-giving drug products.

~ 1600 / 20TH CENTRURY PHARMACEUTICAL MANUFACTURING

Pharmaceutical manufacturing as an industry apart from retail Pharmacy had its beginnings about 1600; really got under way in the middle 1700's. It developed first in Germany, then in England and in France.

In America, it was the child of wars - born in the Revolution; grew rapidly during and following the Civil War; became independent of Europe during World War I; came of age during and following World War II. Utilizing latest technical advances from every branch of science, manufacturing Pharmacy economically develops and produces the latest and greatest in drugs in immense quantities, so that everywhere physicians may prescribe them and pharmacists dispense them for the benefit of all mankind.

1929 – PRESENT THE ERA OF ANTIBIOTICS Antibiotics are not new. Their actions probably were first observed by Pasteur in 1877. However, the second quarter of the 20th century marked the flowering of the antibiotic era - a new and dramatic departure in the production of diseasefighting drugs. Fleming's discovery of penicillin in 1929 went undeveloped and Florey and Chain studied it in 1940. Under pressure of World War II, the pharmaceutical manufacturers rapidly adapted mass production methods to penicillin; have reduced costs to 1/1000th the original. Antibiotic discoveries came rapidly in the '40's. Intensive research continues to find antibiotics that will conquer more of men's microbial enemies.

HISTORY OF PHARMACY PHARMACY TODAY AND TOMORROW Pharmacy, with its heritage of 50 centuries of service to mankind, has come to be recognized as one of the great professions. Like Medicine, it has come through many revolutions, has learned many things, has had to discard many of its older ways. Pharmacists are among the community's finest educated people. When today's retail pharmacist fills a prescription written by a physician, he provides a professional service incorporating the benefits of the work of pharmacists in all branches of the profession - education, research, development, standards, production, and distribution. Pharmacy's professional stature will continue to grow in the future as this great heritage and tradition of service is passed on from preceptor to apprentice, from teacher to student, from father to son.

HISTORY OF PHARMACY IMPORTANT DATES AND KEY DISCOVERIES Prehistoric times

Observation , direct use of plants

~ 2900 B.C.

Egyptian Medicine

~ 2600 B.C.

(Babylon) Single health profession: Priest/Physician/Pharmacist Earliest known records of arts of apothecaries

~ 2000 B.C.

Chinese pharmacy – extensive studies of plants and herbs; Shen Nung

~ 1500 B.C.

Papyrus Ebers – first major collection of drugs and prescriptions

~ 500 B.C.

Terra sigillata – first trademark

~ 300 B.C.

Theophrastus – father of botany

HISTORY OF PHARMACY IMPORTANT DATES AND KEY DISCOVERIES

~ 100 B.C.

Mithridates – first ‘scientific’ studies of poisons and antidotes, including tests on humans

~ 100 A.D.

Dioscorides – scientific writings on drug storage and use Transition of Pharmacy from trade/vocation into science

130 – 200 A.D.

Galen – principles of preparing and compounding medicines Galenicals – pharmaceuticals compounded by mechanical means

~ 200 – 300 A.D.

Damian and Cosmas – twinship of Pharmacy and Medicine

HISTORY OF PHARMACY IMPORTANT DATES AND KEY DISCOVERIES 4th – 12th century

Monasteries keep pharmaceutical records

8th century A.D.

Arabia: separation of pharmacy and medicine Arabic influence reaches Europe

980 – 1037

Ibn Sina – most influential pharmaceutical teachings (standard into 17th century!!)

1240

Official separation of Pharmacy and Medicine in Europe (Frederick II of Hohenstaufen in Sicily)

1498

First official Pharmacopoeia (Florence, Italy)

1617

Society of Apothecaries founded in London, UK

1729

Marshall Apothecary – first pharmacy and centre of pharmaceutical education in USA

HISTORY OF PHARMACY IMPORTANT DATES AND KEY DISCOVERIES 1752

First hospital Pharmacy in USA (Philadelphia, PA)

1800’s

Carl Wilhelm Scheele – Chemist & Pharmacist

1816

Friedrich Wilhelm Adam Sertürner – Founder of Alkaloid Chemistry

1820

Caventou & Pelletier – Quinine (antimalaria)

1820 - 1900

Shaker label – trademark, international quality recognition

1868

Albert B. Prescott – New system of pharmaceutical education: baic sciences, full study schedule, laboratory pharmacy, no pregraduation apprenticeship

1879

Standardization of Pharmaceuticals (Parke Davis: 20 standardized ‘normal liquids’)

HISTORY OF PHARMACY IMPORTANT DATES AND KEY DISCOVERIES

1895

Era of Biologicals – antitoxins from animal serum

early 1900’s

Development of Chemotherapy (Fourneau, Paris)

1929

Alexander Fleming – Discovery of Penicilline, Antibiotics used on large scale since ~1940

2003

GUC Faculty of Pharmacy & Biotechnology opens

HISTORY OF PHARMACY ADVANCEMENT OF KNOWLEDGE

Observation – documentation (careful and thorough studies remain valuable throughout time) Development of prescriptions (effective use of plants and herbs) Development of standardized procedures of drug extraction and storage (pharmacopoeia) Isolation and synthesis of pharmaceutically active substances from plants, herbs and other sources Development of new active compounds based on known structures (synthesis, interaction with medicine, biochemistry/strucutral biology)

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SEJARAH DAN PERKEMBANGAN FARMASI di INDONESIA

SEKILAS FARMASI DI INDONESIA

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Sampai proklamasi kemerdekaan Republik Indonesia, para tenaga farmasi Indonesia pada umumnya masih terdiri dari asisten apoteker dengan jumlah yang sangat sedikit. Tenaga apoteker pada masa penjajahan umumnya berasal dari Denmark, Austria, Jerman dan Belanda. Namun, semasa perang kemerdekaan, kefarmasian di Indonesia mencatat sejarah yang sangat berarti, yakni dengan didirikannya Perguruan Tinggi Farmasi di Klaten pada tahun 1946 dan di Bandung tahun 1947. Semasa pemerintahan Hindia Belanda. Pendidikan asisten apoteker : di tempat kerja (di apotek) oleh apoteker. Setelah bekerja dalam jangka waktu tertentu di apotek dan dianggap memenuhi syarat maka diadakan ujian pengakuan yang diselenggarakan oleh pemerintah Hindia Belanda. Asisten apoteker warga negara Belanda lulusan Indonesia yang pertama lulus tahun 1946 yang diuji di Surabaya.

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Dari buku Verzameling Voorschriften thn 1936 yang dkeluarkan oleh DVG, Sekolah Asisten Apoteker didirikan dengan Surat Keputusan Pemerintah Nomor 38 tanggal 7 Oktober 1918, yang kemudian diubah dengan Surat Keputusan Nomor 15 (Stb.no.50) tanggal 28 Januari 1923 dan Nomor 45 (Stb.392) tanggal 28 Juni 1934 dengan nama Leergang voor de opleididing van apotheker bedienden onder den naam van apothekers assistenschool Peraturan ujian asisten apoteker dan persyaratan izin kerja diatur dalam Surat Keputusan Kepala DVG Nomor 8512 / F tanggal 16 Maret 1933 yang kemudian diubah lagi dengan Surat Keputusan Nomor 27817 / tanggal 8 September 1936 dan Nomor 11161 / F tanggal 6 april 1939. Dinyatakan persyaratan untuk menempuh ijin asisten apoteker harus berijazah MULO Bagian B, memiliki surat keterangan bahwa calon telah melakukan pekerjaan kefarmasian secara terus menerus selama 20 bulan dibawah pengawasan seorang apoteker di Nederland atau di Indonesia yang memimpin sebuah apotek, atau telah mengikuti pendidikan asisten apoteker di Jakarta.

63 Sekitar 1930-an ditetapkan beberapa peraturan perundangundangan kefarmasian : undang - undang Obat Bius No. 278 (stb. 1927) tanggal 12 Mei 1927 yang kemudian diubah dengan No. 335 (stb. 1949); Ordonansi Loodwit No. 28 (Stb. 509) tanggal 21 Desember 1931; dan Ordonansi pemeriksaan bahan-bahan Farmasi Nomor 19 (Stb. 660) tanggal 12 desember 1936.

Sampai perang kemerdekaan, jumlah pabrik farmasi maupun apotek masih sangat sedikit, Pabrik farmasi pada periode itu antara lain pabrik kina dan institut Pasteur yang memproduksi serum dan vaksin, keduanya ada di bandung, Pabrik obat Manggarai di Jakarta, sedangkan apotek pada umumnya hanya terdapat di Jawa dan beberapa kota besar di Sumatera. Pada tahun 1937, jumlah apotek diseluruh Indonesia tercata 76 Apotek. Fungsi apotek pada periode itu disamping melakukan peracikan dan penyerahan obat juga melakukan produksi dan distribusi obat.

64 Tahun 1941 Gubernur Jenderal Hindia Belanda mengeluarkan peraturan : dokter untuk memimpin sebuah apotek yang ditinggalkan apotekernya; memperbolehkan seorang dokter untuk membuka apotek-dokter didaerah yang belum mempunyai apotek.

Pada zaman pendudukan Jepang mulai dirintis Pendidikan Tinggi Farmasi Indonesia, dan diresmikan pada tanggal 1 april 1943 dengan nama Yakugaku sebagai bagian dari Jakarta ka Daigaku. pada tahun 1944, Yakugaku dubah menjadi Yaku daigaku. Setelah Jepang kalah, pendidikan Tinggi Farmasi ini bubar dan seluruh mahasiswanya berjuang untuk menegakkan kemerdekaan dan kedaulatan negara yang baru diproklamasikan. Tahun 1944, pemerintahan pendudukan jepang melakukan pendidikan asisten apoteker dengan masa pendidikan selama 8 bulan dan siswa berasal dari lulusan SMP sampai masa pemerintahan militer Jepang jatuh telah dihasilkan dua angkatan dengan jumlah yang sangat sedikit.

27 September 1945 dibuka perguruan tinggi ahli obat di kalten 65

yang kemudian menjadi fakultas farmasi Universitas Gajah Mada Yogyakarta 1 agustus 1947 di Bandung diresmikan Jurusan Farmasi dari fakultas

Ilmu pasti dan ilmu Alam Universitas Indonesia yang kemudian menjadi jurusan faramasi ITB sekarang ini Pada masa perang kemerdekaan ini, ada beberapa peraturan perundang-undangan kefarmasian yang penting, 1)

Reglement DVG Stb. 1949 No. 228 (merupakan perubahan Reglement DVG Stb 1882 No.97).

2) Ordonansi Bahan-bahan Berbahaya No. 337 tanggal 9 Desember 1949 3) Undang-undang Obat keras No. 419 tanggal 2 Desember 1949

5 september 1953, bagian farmasi Fakultas kedokteran Gigi dan 66 Farmasi UGM, untuk pertama kalinya menghasilkan dua orang apoteker 2 April 1955 bagian farmasi ITB menghasilkan apoteker pertama. Tahun 1953 pemerintah mengeluarkan Undang-undang Nomor 3 tentang Pembukaan Apotek. Sebelum dikeluarkannya undangundang ini , untuk membuka apotek boleh dilakukan dimana saja dan tidak diperlukan izin dari pemerintah. Pemerintah dapat melarang kota-kota tertentu untuk mendirikan apotek baru karena jumlahnya sudah dianggap cukup memadai, izin pembukaan apotek hanya diberikan untuk daerah - daerah yang belum ada atau belum memadai jumlah apoteknya.

Undang-undang nomor 4 tahun 1953 tentang apotek darurat, yang membenarkan seorang asisten apoteker untuk memimpin sebuah apotek. Undang - undang tentang apotek darurat ini sebenarnya harus berakhir pada tahun 1958 karena ada klausal yang termaktub dalam undang-undang tersebut tidak berlaku lagi 5 tahun setelah apoteker pertama dihasilkan oleh perguruan tinggi farmasi Indonesia.

67 Akan tetapi karena lulusan apoteker ternyata sangat sedikit, undang-undang ini diperpanjang sampai tahun 1963, dan perpanjangan tersebut berdasarkan surat keputusan Menteri Kesehatan Nomor 770 / Ph/63/b tanggal 29 Oktober 1983.

Muktamar pertama yang diselenggarakan pada tanggal 17 - 18 juni 1955 di Jakarta : Ikatan Apoteker Indonesia September 1955 di kaliurang, yogyakarta diselenggarakan konferensi Antar Mahasiswa Farmasi seluruh Indonesia yang pertama dan melahirkan MAFARSI Perkembangan lain dalam dunia pendidikan farmasi ialah berdirinya Jurusan Farmasi UNPAD pada tahun 1959.

Pada tahun 1955, jumlah apoteker tercatat 108 orang. Asisten apoteker 1.218 orang , apotek 131 dan pabrik obat sebanyak 7 pabrik. Pada tahun 1958 tersebut bertambah menjadi apoteker 132 orang, asisten apoteker 1613 orang, apotek 146 dan pabrik obat sebanyak 18 pabrik.

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PERIODE TAHUN 1958 SAMPAI DENGAN 1967 Pada periode ini, terutama antara tahun 1960 - 1965, karena kesulitan devisa dan keadaan ekonomi yang suram, industri farmasi dalam negeri hanya dapat berproduksi sekitar 30% dari kapasitas produksinya. Penyediaan obat menjadi sangat terbatas dan sebagian besar berasal dari impor. Sementara itu karena pengawasan belum dapat dilakukan dengan baik banyak terjadi kasus bahan baku maupun obat jadi yang tidak memenuhi persyaratan standar. Sekitar tahun 1960 - 1965, peraturan perundang-undangan yang dikeluarkan oleh pemerintah antara lain : Undang-undang Nomor 9 tahun 1960 tentang Pokok-pokok Kesehatan, Undang-undang Nomor 10 tahun 1961 tentang barang, Undang-undang Nomor 7 tahun 1963 tentang Tenaga Kesehatan,

Pada periode ini berakhirnya apotek dokter dan apotek 69

darurat. Dengan

Surat

Keputusan

Menteri

Kesehatan

Nomor

33148/Kab/176 tanggal 8 Juni 1962, :

Tidak dikeluarkan lagi izin baru untuk pembukaan apotekdokter, dan Semua izin apotek-dokter dinyatakan tidak berlaku lagi sejak tanggal 1 Januari 1963. Berakhirnya apotek darurat ditetapkan dengan Surat Keputusan Menteri Kesehatan Nomor 770/Ph/63/b tanggal 29 Oktober 1963 : Tidak dikeluarkan lagi izin baru untuk pembukaan apotek darurat, Semua izin apotek darurat Ibukota Daerah Tingkat I dinyatakan tidak berlaku lagi sejak tanggal 1 Pebruari 1964, dan

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Pada tahun 1963, sebagai realisasi Undang-undang Pokok Kesehatan telah dibentuk Lembaga Farmasi Nasional (Surat Keputusan Menteri Kesehatan Nomor 39521/Kab/199 tanggal 11 Juli 1963). Dengan demikian, pada waktu itu ada dua instansi pemerintah di bidang kefarmasian, yakni Direktorat Urusan Farmasi dan Lembaga Farmasi Nasional. Direktorat Urusan Farmasi Semula Inspektorat Farmasi. Pada tahun 1967 mengalami pemekaran organisasi menjadi Direktorat Jenderal Farmasi. Pada periode 1958-1967, tenaga farmasi baik apoteker maupun asisten apoteker semakin meningkat jumlahnya. Pada periode ini telah didirikan lagi lima jurusan/fakultas farmasi negeri dan beberapa fakultas farmasi swasta. Pada tahun 1966, jumlah apoteker sebanyak 5.180 orang, apotek 585 dan industri farmasi 109 pabrik.

PERIODE SETELAH PERANG KEMERDEKAAN SAMPAI DENGAN TAHUN 1958

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Sarana pelayanan kesehatan telah berhasil dibangun dan tersebar di seluruh pelosok tanah air dengan mutu pelayanan yang semakin baik dan jangkauan yang semakin luas.

Sampai tahun pertama Repelita I, sebagian besar (80%) kebutuhan obat nasional kita masih sangat tergantung pada impor. Keadaan ini jelas tidak menguntungkan dan mempunyai dampak negatif terhadap upaya peningkatan derajat kesehatan rakyat.

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Pada tahun 1975, institusi pengawasan farmasi dikembangkan dengan adanya perubahan Direktorat Jenderal Farmasi menjadi Direktorat Jenderal Pengawasan Obat dan Makanan. Sementara itu, industri farmasi dalam negeri telah dapat memproduksi sekitar 90% dari kebutuhan obat nasional.

Terhadap distribusi obat telah dilakukan penyempurnaan, terutama penataan kembali fungsi apotek melalui Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 25 tahun 1980. Pada tahun 1983 telah ditetapkan Kebijaksanaan Obat Nasional yang merupakan penjabaran dari Sistem Kesehatan Nasional dan menjadi pedoman serta petunjuk bagi penyelenggaraan semua upaya dibidang obat.

73 Pada tahun 1973 nilai obat yang beredar di Indonesia sekitar US$ 92 Juta, dan pada tahun 1980 meningkat menjadi US$ 483 juta. Ini berarti nilai obat yang beredar pada tahun 1980 mengalami kenaikan 425% dibandingkan dengan nilai obat yang beredar pada tahun 1973. perkembangan dan kemajuan produksi obat di Indonesia dapat dilihat dengan jelas apabila kita bandingkan data produksi tahun 1969 /1970 dengan tahun 1981/1982 sebagai berikut :

Bentuk sediaan

Produksi Tahun (Jutaan) Kenaikan 1969/1970

1981/1982

Tablet

2,545

9.591,37

276,80%

Kapsul

40,3

1.013,35

2.414,50%

Ampul

35,6

75,63

112,40%

Vial

6,7

72,85

987,30%